Ultrafine particles play a crucial role in the atmosphere, both as a source of larger particles and as a factor influencing human health. We analysed hourly particle number size distributions collected during 2015–2021 from an urban background station in the Rhine-Main area in Germany, focusing on potential particle sources and multi-annual trends. The site is influenced by diffuse regional sources such as motor traffic and domestic heating, as well as Frankfurt Airport, located at a distance of 6 km. The average total particle number concentration (TNC, size range 10–500 nm) was 9.4 × 103 cm−3. TNC maxima were observed in diurnal cycles at 07:00, 13:00, and 21:00 UTC+1 (UTC+1 is used throughout the paper). The midday peak was more distinct during the warm season and dominated by nucleation mode particles (NUCs, 10–30 nm), suggesting photochemical particle formation as a source. When the wind was blowing from Frankfurt Airport, a 2.5-fold concentration average in NUCs was observed compared to other directions (11.2 × 103 and 4.3 × 103 cm−3, 2015–2021). In 2020, during traffic restrictions related to the COVID-19 lockdown, TNC downwind of the airport was 40 %–60 % lower compared to the average of the prior 4 years. The overall trend analysis for 2015–2021 yielded consistent downward trends for TNC (−2 % yr−1), atmospheric particulate matter (PM10) mass (4 % yr−1), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) (−5 % yr−1). While our observations of particle number size distributions show general similarities to other Central European observations, the effect of winds from Frankfurt Airport as a particle source is most prominently seen in the range 10–30 nm. The airport's role as a source of NUCs, and the rise in flights from 2015 to 2019 may be the cause of lower decline rates when compared to other locations. ©Author(s) 2026.
Chemical pollution can affect ecosystems and human health, highlighting the need for approaches that identify, evaluate, and prioritize emerging chemical risks before they become established public-health issues requiring regulatory actions. This review and perspective article examines methodological components required for Early Warning Systems (EWSs) for chemical risks, with particular attention to the European policy context. It examines methodological components for chemical EWSs rather than proposing a fully implemented system. It considers how state-of-the-art and emerging methods can support signal generation, signal strengthening, prioritization, uncertainty assessment, communication, and follow-up. The reviewed components include matrices and sampling strategies; chemical monitoring, suspect screening, and non-target screening; effect-based methods, New Approach Methodologies, and effect-directed analysis; exposure and hazard modelling; QSAR, read-across, AI-supported and data-mining tools; expert evaluation; and governance processes that link scientific signals to proportionate follow-up. The conceptual workflow is used as an example of how these components may be organized into a signal-handling process, while EU-level developments provide the broader policy and governance context. The actionable value of a chemical EWS does not depend on any single method, but on structured integration of complementary evidence streams. An effective EWS should combine sensitive weak-signal detection with transparent prioritization, explicit uncertainty assessment, FAIR and interoperable data infrastructures, and clearly assigned responsibilities for communication and follow-up. © The Author(s) 2026.
Environmental surveys are essential tools to investigate the impact of pollutants on the living and non-living environment. Their data often form a basis to derive recommendations for preventive measures protecting health and ecosystems and identify the need for political action. Therefore, representative environmental data sets need to be free of systematic artifacts; their statistical structure should be explored and understood as good as possible. The German Environmental Survey (GerES) is a nationwide study conducted at unregular intervals. The data collected within the GerES V (2014–2017) campaign is important for recording and assessing pollutants in households with children and adolescents. Due to its sampling characteristics, GerES claims to be representative of the population in Germany and, with its standardized measurements and sampling protocols, as well as the selection of sampling points, provides a prime example of a study on the statistical nature of pollutants concentrations. In this work data sets from 19 pollutants in indoor air and house dust were selected from the GerES V pool. The parameters obtained from descriptive statistics were compared with the modeled data of a lognormal probability function and a lognormal cumulative density function. Confidence intervals were calculated using a bootstrap method. Monte-Carlo simulations were used to quantify uncertainties in estimators of theoretical distribution assumptions and to investigate the influence of classifying data into equidistant intervals (bins) on nonlinear regression analysis with respect to data count and bin width. The results of our study provide better insight into the general statistical nature of environmental observations, enabling a more reliable assessment of the parameters derived from the data. © 2026 The Authors.
Human biomonitoring (HBM) is a powerful tool for quantifying internal chemical levels via biological samples such as blood and urine. Between 2000 and 2017, global synthetic chemical production doubled from approximately 1.15 billion tonnes to 2.3 billion tonnes, with this trend continuing to increase. There has been an extensive expansion of national HBM programmes to evaluate actual chemical exposures and safeguard their citizens. A key factor in the development of HBM is to include policymakers and to utilise HBM data for policy impact. This study, part of the HBM4IRE (Human Biomonitoring for Ireland) feasibility study, employed a World Café approach for engaging 25 stakeholders from government agencies, industry, and academia to co-create a national HBM roadmap. Using a critical realist approach and thematic analysis of qualitative data, four key themes emerged from the discussion: (1) targeted HBM for exposure hotspots, (2) mapping HBM to EU and National policy frameworks, (3) monitoring chemical exposures as an early warning system, and (4) aligning HBM with national legislative needs. Results highlight HBM’s critical role in identifying at-risk groups (such as workers in high-exposure industries, children exposed to recycled materials like playground tyres) and validating policy effectiveness (e.g., lead restriction impacts). It also highlighted challenges such as data gaps, high costs, and limited baseline information. Study participants expressed a need for a governance framework, including a national HBM Steering Committee and inter-institutional collaboration, to bridge science-to-policy gaps, offering a scalable model for other nations to enhance chemical risk management, ensure regulatory compliance, and strengthen public health protection. Overall, stakeholders expressed a high interest and strong willingness in establishing a national HBM programme in Ireland, viewing this as an opportune time for Ireland to implement such a system. The approach adopted for this study could be utilised to engage different stakeholders across an array of relevant topics. Given its valuable outcomes, the HBM4IRE World Café approach has demonstrated that it can serve as a model for other countries to build consensus, identify gaps, and foster stakeholder ownership in establishing long-term and sustainable national HBM programmes. © 2026 The Authors.
Reproductive health is declining globally, with growing evidence linking exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals during critical pregnancy stages to adverse male sexual development. This study assessed the cumulative risk of nine such chemicals—acrylamide, PCB 118, DEHP, DnBP, DiBP, BBzP, DiNP, DCHP, and DnPeP—and possible influencing factors such as age, socioeconomic status (SES), and region (former East vs. West Germany). We analyzed cross-sectional data from the German Environmental Survey for Children and Adolescents 2014–2017 (GerES V), including 1090 participants with complete urine and plasma samples. Using the Hazard Index (HI) method, which combines exposure levels with human biomonitoring guidance values, we found that 31% of participants had an HI above 1, indicating elevated risk from combined chemical exposure. Notably, 26% of these cases would have gone unnoticed in single-substance assessments. DnBP, DiBP, and acrylamide were the main contributors to overall risk. Stratified analyses revealed that younger children had higher HI levels than older ones. Children from lower SES backgrounds also showed higher risk compared to those from medium or high SES groups. Additionally, residing in former East Germany was associated with increased HI levels compared to former West Germany. These findings emphasize the importance of considering chemical mixtures in risk assessments and recognizing subgroup-specific vulnerabilities. Future assessments should expand the range of included chemicals and focus on high-risk groups—especially children, individuals with low SES, and residents of former East Germany—to better capture the scope of potential health impacts. © 2026 The Authors.
Children and adolescents are highly exposed to harmful polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that exist as mixtures of hundreds of compounds in air, soil, water, dust and food. This study investigated 21 personal, lifestyle and environmental predictors of urinary PAH metabolites from four PAHs (naphthalene, fluorene, phenanthrene and pyrene), using a dataset of 516 3–17-year-olds from 167 locations in Germany. Spearman correlation analysis showed weak to moderate associations (ρ = 0.2–0.6) between PAH metabolite concentrations. Regression analysis revealed high nicotine exposure, young age, and residence in large cities to be the most important predictors of multiple PAH burden, with estimated changes in metabolite concentrations of 124–1080%, 47–155%, and 22–57% respectively. Other notable predictors included: BMI, socioeconomic status, sex, consumption of chocolate, smoked and barbecued foods, chewing on plastic objects, road traffic, and heating type. Analysis of the ratios of 1-hydroxynaphthalene to 2-hydroxynaphthalene for subgroups with high cotinine level (3-fold increase) or moderate to high chocolate consumption (1.7–3.4-fold increase) was suggestive of exposure to carbaryl, a pesticide not permitted for use in the EU since 2007. Differences in the burden of PAH metabolites between East and West Germany was investigated using subgroup analysis. Consuming smoked food was both more prevalent (p = 0.009) and likely to contribute to a greater 1-hydroxynaphthalene burden in the East German subsample. Gaining a better understanding of exposure factors, especially using population data from a large number of locations, will guide policy makers and regulators in strengthening protective measures. © 2026 The Authors.
Mental, behavioural, and neurodevelopmental disorders arise from complex genetic, social, psychological, lifestyle, and environmental interactions. This umbrella+ review evaluates evidence on mental health impacts of ambient air pollution, environmental chemicals, and transportation noise, prioritizing systematic reviews and recent high-quality European studies. Long-term air pollution is associated with higher incidence of depression, while short-term peaks exacerbate depressive and psychotic symptoms and increase suicide risk. Chemicals such as second-hand smoke, lead, bisphenol A, and pesticides show consistent links to depression, schizophrenia, and anxiety, particularly with prenatal or childhood exposure. Emerging evidence indicates transportation noise increases risks of depression, anxiety, and childhood ADHD, mainly through stress and sleep disruption. These environmental exposures likely make meaningful population-level contributions to Europe’s mental health burden, especially during sensitive early developmental periods. Prevention should reduce environmental pollution while leveraging the restorative potential of natural environments, with future research addressing long-term, cumulative effects and socioeconomic vulnerability. © European Topic Centre on Human health and the environment
Introduction: To determine threshold concentrations of pollen inducing symptoms in seasonal allergic rhinitis patients has been a challenge for decades. Allergen challenge chambers (ACC) allow a controlled, reproducible experimental design to address this problem. Hitherto, ACCs were only run with high pollen concentrations. Methods: The Fraunhofer ACC was technically modified to deploy very low pollen concentrations. Then, adults with birch pollen-induced allergic rhinitis were challenged with varying birch pollen concentrations using a patient-blinded, sham challenge-controlled, part-randomized, titrate-to-effect clinical study setting. Mean increase in Total Nasal Symptom Score (TNSS) ≥0.55 compared to sham challenge was regarded as minimal clinically important difference (MCID). Further endpoints were nasal secretion weight, exhaled nitric oxide (FeNO), and inflammatory cells from nasal lavage. Results: Fifteen participants with mild to moderate allergic rhinitis participated in the experimental study part (mean age 45 years [22–64]; 7 females). Mean TNSS was: 1.08 at 0 pollen/m3; 1.05 at 10 pollen/m3; 1.2 at 50 pollen/m3; 1.74 at 100 pollen/m3; 1.61 at 200 pollen/m3; 2.79 at 1,000 pollen/m3. MCID of TNSS was observed at 100, 200, and 1,000 pollen/m3. More than half of the study population showed a lack of response at 10, 50, and 200 pollen/m3. Nasal secretion increased slightly with concentration. No clinically meaningful results could be derived from FeNO and inflammatory cells. Conclusions: The applied technical modification of the Fraunhofer ACC produced stable, low pollen concentrations. Based on mean TNSS data, the threshold concentration for inducing symptoms with birch pollen was 50–100 pollen/m3. © 2025 The Author(s).
Hintergrund Gute Innenraumluftqualität ist ein zentrales Ziel der Umwelt- und Gesundheitspolitik und gewinnt vor dem Hintergrund energieeffizienter Bauweisen sowie der Erfahrungen aus der COVID-19-Pandemie („coronavirus disease 2019“) weiter an Bedeutung. Ziel der Studie ist es, Wissen und Einstellungen in Bezug auf Innenraumluftqualität, Lüftungsverhalten sowie Veränderungen seit der Pandemie zu beschreiben und Ansatzpunkte für wirksame Interventionen abzuleiten. Methodik Im Februar 2025 wurden in einer deutschlandweiten Online-Befragung 1902 Personen mit einem standardisierten Fragebogen mittels eines Online-Panels befragt. Die Zusammensetzung der Stichprobe ist weitgehend mit den soziodemografischen Merkmalen der Bevölkerung Deutschlands vergleichbar. Ergebnisse Innenraumluftqualität wird mit deutlicher Mehrheit von 93 % als bedeutsam eingeschätzt, zugleich bestehen Wissenslücken zu spezifischen Einflussfaktoren wie verschiedenen Schadstoffen. Beim Lüftungsverhalten zeigt sich z. B. eine zu geringe Frequenz: Nur ca. jeder Zehnte lüftet mehrmals stündlich, die Mehrheit lüftet mehrmals oder einmal täglich. Messanzeigen zur Raumluftüberwachung sind wenig verbreitet, mehr als zwei Drittel nutzen keine Anzeigen oder kennen sie nicht; wo sie vorhanden sind, unterstützen sie ein messwertorientiertes Lüftungsverhalten. Schlussfolgerung Die Ergebnisse verdeutlichen eine Diskrepanz zwischen Einstellungen und tatsächlichem Verhalten und unterstreichen die Notwendigkeit alltagsnaher, strukturell eingebetteter Maßnahmen. Zur nachhaltigen Verbesserung der Innenraumluftqualität erscheint eine Kombination aus gezielter Wissensvermittlung, der Etablierung einfacher Lüftungsroutinen sowie technischer Unterstützung durch Mess- und Feedbacksysteme sinnvoll. ©TheAuthor(s) 2026
Introduction: Climate change may increase the spread of allergenic plants such as ragweed. Ragweed pollen is assumed to be more allergenic than birch pollen. Determining pollen threshold concentrations triggering symptoms is challenging. Technical modifications to the Fraunhofer allergen challenge chamber (ACC) now allow investigation of very low pollen concentrations. Based on Total Nasal Symptom Score (TNSS) data from 15 subjects with birch pollen allergic rhinitis (AR), a birch pollen threshold between 50 and 100 pollen grains/m3 of air was previously derived. This study explored threshold concentrations of ragweed pollen. Methods: Two ragweed pollen AR patients were exposed to varying concentrations of ragweed pollen for 4 h. TNSS was recorded every 20 min, and nasal secretion and peak nasal inspiratory flow hourly. Area under the curve (AUC0-240) values were calculated. Ex vivo basophil activation tests with varying concentrations of ragweed pollen, Amb a 1, birch pollen, and Bet v 1 were performed for both ragweed pollen AR patients and 6 of the 15 birch pollen AR patients. Mean effective concentrations (EC50) for CD63 expression were calculated. Results: Ragweed pollen exposure resulted in the following TNSS AUC0-240 values: 28/23 at 0, 18/17 at 50, 13/27 at 100, 40/40 at 200, 29/16 at 300, and 55/47 at 1,000 pollen grains/m3. For CD63 expression, the mean EC50 was 277 pollen/mL for ragweed pollen, 884 ng/mL for Amb a 1, 11 pollen/mL for birch pollen, and 0.13 ng/mL for Bet v 1. On average, the proportion of Amb a 1 in ragweed pollen was 0.17%, and the proportion of Bet v 1 in birch pollen 1.96%. Conclusion: The modified Fraunhofer ACC can investigate pollen threshold concentrations under defined conditions. The assumed differences in threshold concentrations of ragweed and birch pollen for triggering symptoms were not confirmed. To derive reliable threshold concentrations for ragweed pollen, larger studies have to be followed. © 2026 The Author(s).
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