This database expands the Poulton et al., 2018 (doi:10.1594/PANGAEA.888182) database of pelagic calcium carbonate (CP) rate measurements from isotopic tracer uptake in incubated discrete water samples, as discussed in Daniels et al., 2018 (doi:10.5194/essd-10-1859-2018), and accompanies Marsh et al. (in prep.). The database now includes more CP (new data n = 400; complete database n = 3165), net primary production rate (PP) (new data n = 399; complete database n = 3150), total coccolithophore cell counts (new data n = 240; complete database n = 1512), and Emiliania huxleyi cell counts (new data n = 27; complete database n = 612). This expanded database maintains the record of data, including the principal investigator, expedition, OS region, doi reference (where available), collection date and year, sample ID, latitude, longitude, sampling and light depth, and method of measuring CP. We further expand the Poulton et al. (2018) data collection by including ancillary and environmental data, including: optical depth (OD, n = 3165), pHtotal (hereinafter referred to as pHT, n = 398), temperature (n = 1160), salinity (n = 1161), and the concentrations of chlorophyll a (n = 1363), NOx (NO3 or the sum of NO3 + NO2, n = 1161), silicic acid (Si(OH)4, n= 1156), phosphate (PO4, n = 1232), dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC, n = 318), total alkalinity (TA, n = 307), bicarbonate ion concentration (n = 349), and carbonate ion concentration (n = 352). All data was matched to CP, sample bottle identifiers (Niskin bottle numbers), and/or sampling depth values. This global database (81 °N - 64 °S, 132 °E - 174 °W) now covers expeditions and upper ocean measurements (0 - 193 m) from 1989 to 2024. Global in-situ geolocated data spanning time is valuable for modelling, satellite algorithms, and capturing calcium carbonate production in the global ocean. This expanded database, including the environmental, nutrient, chlorophyll a, and carbonate chemistry data, also allows for analysis of factors influencing calcium carbonate production on a global scale. This data amalgamation contributes to understanding the biogeochemistry of the oceans, global carbon cycle, and ocean acidification.
Culturing experiments were performed with the benthic foraminifer Ammonia aomoriensis from Flensburg Fjord, western Baltic Sea. The experiments simulated a projected rise in atmospheric CO2 concentrations. We exposed specimens to 5 seawater pCO2 levels ranging from 618 µatm (pH 7.9) to 3130 µatm (pH 7.2) for 6 wk. Growth rates and mortality differed significantly among pCO2 treatments. The highest increase of mean test diameter (19%) was observed at 618 µatm. At partial pressures >1829 µatm, the mean test diameter was observed to decrease, by up to 22% at 3130 µatm. At pCO2 levels of 618 and 751 µatm, A. aomoriensis tests were found intact after the experiment. The outer chambers of specimens incubated at 929 and 1829 µatm were severely damaged by corrosion. Visual inspection of specimens incubated at 3130 µatm revealed wall dissolution of all outer chambers, only their inner organic lining stayed intact. Our results demonstrate that pCO2 values of >=929 µatm in Baltic Sea waters cause reduced growth of A. aomoriensis and lead to shell dissolution. The bottom waters in Flensburg Fjord and adjacent areas regularly experience pCO2 levels in this range during summer and fall. Increasing atmospheric CO2 concentrations are likely to extend and intensify these periods of undersaturation. This may eventually slow down calcification in A. aomoriensis to the extent that net carbonate precipitation terminates. The possible disappearance of this species from the Baltic Sea and other areas prone to seasonal undersaturation would likely cause significant shifts in shallow-water benthic ecosystems in the near future.
Ocean warming and acidification may substantially affect the reproduction of keystone species such as Fucus vesiculosus (Phaeophyceae). In four consecutive benthic mesocosm experiments, we compared the reproductive biology and quantified the temporal development of Baltic Sea Fucus fertility under the single and combined impact of elevated seawater temperature and pCO2 (1100 ppm). In an additional experiment, we investigated the impact of temperature (0–25°C) on the maturation of North Sea F. vesiculosus receptacles. A marked seasonal reproductive cycle of F. vesiculosus became apparent in the course of 1 year. The first appearance of receptacles on vegetative apices and the further development of immature receptacles of F. vesiculosus in autumn were unaffected by warming or elevated pCO2. During winter, elevated pCO2 in both ambient and warmed temperatures increased the proportion of mature receptacles significantly. In spring, warming and, to a lesser extent, elevated pCO2 accelerated the maturation of receptacles and advanced the release of gametes by up to 2 weeks. Likewise, in the laboratory, maturation and gamete release were accelerated at 15–25°C relative to colder temperatures. In summary, elevated pCO2 and/or warming do not influence receptacle appearance in autumn, but do accelerate the maturation process during spring, resulting in earlier gamete release. Temperature and, to a much lesser extent, pCO2 affect the temporal development of Fucus fertility. Thus, rising temperatures will mainly shift or disturb the phenology of F. vesiculosus in spring and summer, which may alter and/or hamper its ecological functions in shallow coastal ecosystems of the Baltic Sea.
The current increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration induces changes in the seawater carbonate system resulting in decreased pH and calcium carbonate saturation state, a phenomenon called ocean acidification (OA). OA has long been considered as a major threat to echinoderms because their extensive endoskeleton is made of high‑magnesium calcite, one of the most soluble forms of calcium carbonate. Numerous studies addressed this question in sea urchins, but very few questioned the impact of OA on the sea star skeleton, although members of this taxon do not compensate their extracellular pH, contrary to most sea urchins. In the present study, adults of the common sea star, Asterias rubens from Kiel Fjord, a site experiencing natural acidification events exceeding pCO2 levels of 2500 μatm, were chronically exposed to different levels of simulated ocean acidification (pHT-SW 8.0, 7.4, 7.2), encompassing present and future conditions, for the duration of 109 days. Corrosion and mechanical properties of skeletal elements were studied using scanning electron microscopy, three-point bending tests as well as nanoindentation. The spines were significantly corroded at pHT-SW 7.4 and below while the ambulacral plates were only affected at pHT-SW 7.2. Nanoindentation of newly formed spines and ambulacral plates did not reveal significant CO2-induced differences in skeleton hardness or elasticity across treatments. Results of three-point bending tests revealed significantly reduced characteristic strength and fracture force of ambulacral plates from the median arm segment at pHT-SW 7.4 and below. These plates are those supporting the tube feet involved in the opening of bivalves during feeding and in the animal attachment to the substrate. Under reduced seawater pH, this might result in fracture of sea star plates during predation on mussel. The present results predict a possible impact of ocean acidification on the skeletal integrity of a marine keystone predator.
We studied the response of the heterotrophic flagellate (HF) community to the combined impact of warming and ocean acidification in a mesocosm experiment with a plankton community from the western Baltic Sea. We performed a quantitative analysis of the response at the level of total biomass and size classes and a semi-quantitative one at the level of individual taxa. Total biomass of HF was significantly lower under higher temperatures while there was no significant effect of CO2. The mean biomass of the picoflagellates did not respond to temperature while the three nanoflagellate size classes (class limits 3, 5, 8, 15 ?m) responded negatively to warming while not responding to CO2. The taxon-level results indicate that heterotrophic flagellates do not form a homogenous trophic guild, as often assumed in pelagic food web studies. Instead, the heterotrophic flagellates formed a ?food web within the food web?. There was a pronounced succession of flagellates leading from a dominance of bacterivores and colloidal matter feeders before the phytoplankton bloom to omnivorous feeders preying upon phytoplankton and heterotrophic flagellates during and after the bloom. This complex intraguild predation patterns probably dampened the response to experimental treatments.
Shallow coastal marine ecosystems are exposed to intensive warming events in the last decade, threatening keystone macroalgal species such as the bladder wrack (Fucus vesiculosus, Phaeophyceae) in the Baltic Sea. Herein, we experimentally tested in four consecutive benthic mesocosm experiments, if the single and combined impact of elevated seawater temperature (+ 5◦C) and pCO2 (1100 ppm) under natural irradiance conditions seasonally affected the photophysiological performance (i.e., oxygen production, in vivo chlorophyll a fluorescence, energy dissipation pathways and chlorophyll concentration) of Baltic Sea Fucus. Photosynthesis was highest in spring/early summer when water temperature and solar irradiance increases naturally, and was lowest in winter (December to January/February). Temperature had a stronger effect than pCO2 on photosynthetic performance of Fucus in all seasons. In contrast to the expectation that warmer winter conditions might be beneficial, elevated temperature conditions and sub-optimal low winter light conditions decreased photophysiological performance of Fucus. In summer, western Baltic Sea Fucus already lives close to its upper thermal tolerance limit and future warming of the Baltic Sea during summer may probably become deleterious for this species. However, our results indicate that over most of the year a combination of future ocean warming and increased pCO2 will have slightly positive effects for Fucus photophysiological performance.
Phytoplankton populations can display high levels of genetic diversity that, when reflected by phenotypic variability, may stabilize a species response to environmental changes. We studied the effects of increased temperature and CO2 availability as predicted consequences of global change, on 16 genetically different isolates of the diatom Skeletonema marinoi from the Adriatic Sea and the Skagerrak (North Sea), and on eight strains of the PST (paralytic shellfish toxin)-producing dinoflagellate Alexandrium ostenfeldii from the Baltic Sea. Maximum growth rates were estimated in batch cultures of acclimated isolates grown for five to 10 generations in a factorial design at 20 and 24 °C, and present day and next century applied atmospheric pCO2, respectively. In both species, individual strains were affected in different ways by increased temperature and pCO2. The strongest response variability, buffering overall effects, was detected among Adriatic S. marinoi strains. Skagerrak strains showed a more uniform response, particularly to increased temperature, with an overall positive effect on growth. Increased temperature also caused a general growth stimulation in A. ostenfeldii, despite notable variability in strain-specific response patterns. Our data revealed a significant relationship between strain-specific growth rates and the impact of pCO2 on growth-slow growing cultures were generally positively affected, while fast growing cultures showed no or negative responses to increased pCO2. Toxin composition of A. ostenfeldii was consistently altered by elevated temperature and increased CO2 supply in the tested strains, resulting in overall promotion of saxitoxin production by both treatments. Our findings suggest that phenotypic variability within populations plays an important role in the adaptation of phytoplankton to changing environments, potentially attenuating short-term effects and forming the basis for selection. In particular, A. ostenfeldii blooms may expand and increase in toxicity under increased water temperature and atmospheric pCO2 conditions, with potentially severe consequences for the coastal ecosystem.
Anthropogenic CO2 emissions are rapidly changing seawater temperature, pH and carbonate chemistry. This study compares the embryonic development under high pCO2conditions across the south-north distribution range of the marine clam Limecola balthicain NW Europe. The combined effects of elevated temperature and reduced pH on hatching success and size varied strongly between the three studied populations, with the Gulf of Finland population appearing most endangered under the conditions predicted to occur by 2100. These results demonstrate that the assessment of marine faunal population persistence to future climatic conditions needs to consider the interactive effects of co-occurring physico-chemical alterations in seawater within the local context that determines population fitness, adaptation potential and the system resilience to environmental change.
Störungen des Kohlenstoffkreislaufs, sowohl natürlichen als auch anthropogenen Ursprungs, führen zu globale Erwärmung, Ozeanversauerung (OA) und Sauerstoffzehrung des Tiefenwassers. Natürliche Störungen des Kohlenstoffkreislaufs sind als Hauptursache von mindestens 4 von 5 Massensterben in der Erdgeschichte identifiziert wurden (z.B. Hönisch et al, 2009, Bijma et al.., 2013).Anthropogene Aktivitäten setzten CO2 zehnmal schneller frei als jedes andere Ereignis in den letzten 65 Mio. Jahren - vielleicht sogar während der letzten 300 Mio Jahren. Dies macht den heutigen CO2 Ausstoß zu einer der größten gesellschaftlichen Herausforderungen. Um die Auswirkungen der anthropogenen Störungen vorhersagen zu können, ist es zwingend erforderlich, die natürlichen Speicher und Dynamik des Kohlenstoffsystems zu verstehen. Dies erfordert die genaue Rekonstruktion der marinen Karbonatchemie für Zeiträume mit natürlichen Änderungen. In diesem Projekt wollen wir Veränderlichkeit am Übergang Glazial/Interglazial untersuchen weil die Änderungen der Karbonatchemie in der gleichen Größenordnung wie heute lagen. Da das Reservoir an anorganischem Kohlenstoff im Ozean ungefähr 60 mal größer ist als das der Atmosphäre, sind Rekonstruktionen der Veränderungen der Kohlenstoffsenke/-speicherung in der Tiefsee ein Schlüssel, um die glazialen/interglazialen Schwankungen im atmosphärischen CO2 - wie sie in Eisbohrkernen beobachtet werden - zu erklären. Prozesse im Südozean, wo der Großteil des Tiefenwassers ventiliert wird, spielen hierbei vermutlich eine zentrale Rolle. Man vermutet, dass der träge glaziale Süd Ozean mehr Kohlenstoff einlagern konnte, die Biologische Pumpe effektiver war und dass eine höhere Wassermassen-Stratifizierung das Entweichen von CO2 in die Atmosphäre verringert hat. Nach dem glazialen Maximum wird mit dem Rückzug des Meereises die Tiefsee Kohlenstoff - Pumpe wieder mit der Atmosphäre verbunden und führt zu einer erhöhten CO2-Freisetzung. Bislang ist dies, wenn auch von Indizienbeweisen unterstützt, nur eine Hypothese, zum Beweis bedarf es der Rekonstruktionen der glazialen/interglazialen variierenden Karbonatchemie. Dies ist das übergreifende Ziel unseres Antrags. Auf dem Weg zur Rekonstruktion des glazialen/interglazialen Kohlenstoffpools liegen 3 Zwischenziele: 1) Rekonstruktion von Oberflächenwasser-Tiefsee- CO2-Gradienten, glaziale Kohlenstoffspeicherung und deglaziale Entgasung mittels Bor-Isotopen und B/Ca fossiler Foraminiferen als Hauptvariablen. 2) Erstellen der ersten Kalibrationen von Bor-Isotopen und B/Ca Ratio für Cibicides wuellerstorfi (Tiefseeforaminifere) unter in-situ Druck. 3) Entwicklung von analytischen Methoden, welche die Analyse von einzelnen Foraminiferen Schalen erlauben.
Durch die Aufnahme von anthropogenem CO2 ist eine Verringerung des ph Wertes im Ozean zu erwarten Dies könnte weitrechende Auswirkungen auf Korallenriffe haben und ist daher von großem wissenschaftlichen Interesse. Die Mehrzahl der bisher durchgeführten Studien zur Ozeanversauerung wurde anhand vereinfachter Systeme im Labor vorgenommen. Obwohl diese Studien wichtig und aufschlussreich waren, wiesen sie jedoch Einschränkungen auf, im Besonderen hinsichtlich natürlicher Veränderungen, Beobachtungsdauer, Altersverteilung, genetischer Vielfalt und Wechselbeziehungen zwischen einzelnen Korallenarten. Eine Möglichkeit diese Einschränkungen zu umgehen, ist die Untersuchung von Korallenriffen in der Umgebung von submarinen CO2-Austritten. Der erhöhte CO2 im Meerwasser dort sorgt für pH und Temperaturbedingungen wie sie als Folge der Ozeanversauerung bis zum Jahr 2100 vorausgesagt werden. Drei solche Korallenriffe in Papua Neu Guinea, Japan und den Nördlichen Marianen-Inseln wurden untersucht und interessanter Weise fiel die Auswirkung der Ozeanversauerung an jedem der Standorte unterschiedlich aus. Eine mögliche Erklärung für die beobachteten Unterschiede könnte sein, dass die Studien nicht alle Parameter berücksichtigten, die sich nachteilig auf die Gesundheit von Korallen auswirken. Im Allgemeinen werden submarine CO2-Austritte von submarinen Hydrothermalquellen mit Temperaturen bis zu 100 °C begleitet. Der hydrothermale Eintrag induziert steile Temperaturgradienten und erhöht die Konzentrationen von Schwermetallen in dem zu untersuchenden Gebiet. Diese zwei Effekte gilt es bei einer solchen Untersuchung zur Ozeanversauerung in Betracht zu ziehen. In diesem Sinne dient die geplante internationale Zusammenarbeit dem Ziel, ein Expertenteam aus der Aquatischen Chemie und der Korallenphysiologie zusammenzubringen, um detaillierte chemische und biologische Untersuchungen an Korallenriffen mit CO2-Austritten vorzunehmen, um die Auswirkungen der Ozeanversauerung besser zu verstehen.
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