Der Energieatlas ist das Portal der LUBW und des Umweltministeriums für Daten und Karten zum Thema erneuerbare Energien. Hier finden Sie unter anderem Beispiele für energie- und wärmeeffiziente Gebäude. Diese Praxisbeispiele sind nun um prämierte Projekte aus dem „Energiepreis Bauen und Modernisieren 2018“ ergänzt. Denn energieeffizientes Bauen und Modernisieren ist ein wichtiger Baustein für die Wärmewende. Zudem wurden die bestehenden Projekte so umstrukturiert, dass ein schneller Überblick über Projekte mit dem Schwerpunkt Wärmeeffizienz möglich ist. Mit Hilfe der aufgeführten Beispiele kann man sich über die ausgezeichneten Objekte umfassend informieren. So finden Sie in den Projektbeschreibungen neben den technischen Informationen auch die möglichen Energie- und CO2-Einsparungen sowie die Investitionskosten. Den Überblick über alle Beispiele in Baden-Württemberg zum Thema Wärme, finden Sie hier . Bild zeigt: Ausschnitt aus dem Energieatlas mit Praxisbeispielen zur Wärmeeffizienz, Bildnachweis: LUBW Effizienzpreis Bauen und Modernisieren Zur Unterstützung von energieeffizientem Bauen und Modernisieren hat das Ministerium für Umwelt, Klima und Energiewirtschaft Baden-Württemberg im Jahr 2018 einen „Effizienzpreis Bauen und Modernisieren“ ausgelobt. Der Effizienzpreis beinhaltet Auszeichnungen in den Kategorien Ein- und Zweifamilien- bzw. Mehrfamilienhaus für Neubauten und Modernisierungen sowie für Modernisierungen von Gebäuden unter Denkmalschutz. Mit dem Preis soll gezeigt werden, dass Bauen und Modernisieren energieeffizienter Gebäude nicht per se teuer sein muss. Im Jahr 2020 wird der Preis zum zweiten Mal verliehen. Informationen hierzu finden Sie hier . Mehr zum Thema: - Hier finden Sie den Energieatlas, in dem Sie Informationen und Daten zum Thema erneuerbare Energien und Netzen finden können. - Weitere Einzelprojekte, zum Beispiel zu den Themen Solarthermie oder Biomasse, finden Sie hier . Bildnachweis Titelbild: Ivan Smuk/123rf.com
Alternative reactor concepts A number of reactor concepts are being developed around the world as future alternatives to conventional nuclear power plants. A report commissioned by BASE analyses the development status, safety and regulatory framework of these concepts. Study on alternative reactor concepts BASE has commissioned a research project to analyse current developments in alternative reactor concepts that differ significantly from light water reactors. The term "so-called 'novel' reactor concepts" is used to denote them in this report. Various reactor concepts that are seen as future alternatives to conventional nuclear power plants are currently being developed around the world. They are often summarised under collective terms such as "4th generation reactors", "novel reactor concepts" or "advanced reactors". These alternative reactors are characterised by the fact that they can provide electricity much more cheaply than conventional nuclear power plants, are safer than conventional nuclear power plants, should be able to incubate new nuclear fuel, should be able to recycle radioactive waste, produce less waste, are less suitable for producing fissile material for nuclear weapons. But will the alternative reactor concepts live up to expectations? BASE has commissioned an expert report to investigate this question, and to analyse and evaluate the concepts regarding development status, safety and regulatory framework. You can view an interim report on the expert opinion here. Here you can find the summary of the study results . Historical development Research into a variety of different reactor concepts based on the use of different nuclear fuels, coolants, moderator materials and neutron spectra has been conducted since the 1940s and 1950s. Light water reactors, which include the pressurised and boiling water reactors operated in Germany, were the most successful in industrial terms. Around 90% of the global output of nuclear power plants is currently generated by light water reactors. Development of alternative reactor concepts As light water reactors also have shortcomings in terms of safety, fuel utilisation, efficiency and cost-effectiveness, interest in alternative concepts has been growing again for some time. These are often referred to as novel reactor types, but some of them are based on designs that have been under development for many decades and have not produced any commercially competitive construction lines to date. For this reason, the report commissioned by BASE refers to "so-called 'novel' reactor concepts". The Generation IV International Forum International efforts to develop alternative reactor concepts have been coordinated through the Generation IV International Forum (GIF) since 2001. The aim is to produce operational nuclear reactors of alternative technology lines with improved properties in the near future. Six different technology lines are being pursued: 1. Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) 2. Molten Salt Reactor (MSR) 3. Supercritical-water-cooled reactor (SCWR) 4. Gas-cooled fast reactor (GFR) 5. Sodium-cooled fast reactor (SFR) 6. Lead-cooled fast reactor (LFR) Other concepts are currently being developed outside the GIF's area of work, for example 7. Accelerator-driven subcritical reactor (Accelerator-driven Systems, ADS) Alternative technology lines 1) Very High Temperature Reactor (VHTR) While most conventional reactors (including the light water reactors operated in Germany) heat the water used as a cooling medium to temperatures of approx. 300°C, other reactor types operate at significantly higher temperatures. The high-temperature reactor is designed to reach temperatures of 750°C to over 1000°C. Such high temperatures allow for significantly higher efficiencies than other reactor types, i.e. a better yield when converting heat into electricity. Furthermore, the heat can alternatively be utilised for certain industrial processes such as the production of hydrogen. Very High Temperature Reactor © BASE How does the high-temperature reactor work? High-temperature reactor concepts use helium gas as a coolant instead of water. This allows the reactor to operate at lower pressure, making it more controllable at extremely high temperatures compared to conventional light water reactors. Uranium oxide or carbide is predominantly used as fuel. The fuel comes in small pellets that are encased in a protective shell. The pellets, in turn, are embedded in spheres or prismatic blocks of graphite, which serves as a moderator. These spheres or blocks represent the fuel elements. Coolant flows around them and absorbs the heat generated during the nuclear reaction. This heat can be used, for example, to heat water and drive a steam turbine. Advantages and disadvantages of high-temperature reactors? In addition to an increased efficiency and the generation of process heat at high temperatures, high-temperature reactors offer further advantages over conventional reactors. The design of the fuel elements and the helium cooling offer improved safety features. This means that additional safety systems can be used, some of which are not available in water-cooled reactors. Due to its design, the high-temperature reactor has a relatively low output in relation to the total volume of the reactor core. A core meltdown can, therefore, be ruled out. If the plant is suitably designed, natural uranium , thorium, plutonium or mixed oxides can also be used as fuel in addition to enriched uranium . However, the technology also has major disadvantages. The high temperature and the helium coolant pose a challenge in terms of selecting suitable materials. Gas-cooled reactors also often exhibit problems such as uneven cooling, high abrasion and dust formation as well as an increased risk of fire in the event of water or air ingress. This can lead to the release of radioactive substances . Due to the high content of radioactive graphite, the final disposal of spent fuel elements is estimated to be significantly more cost-intensive compared to conventional fuel elements. Development status of high-temperature reactors Gas-cooled high-temperature reactors have been the subject of research since the 1960s. Prototype plants based on this concept (the pebble bed reactors in Jülich and Hamm-Uentrop) were also developed in Germany. At the end of the 1980s, both plants were shut down due to various technical problems, and the technology was gradually abandoned in Germany. Other high-temperature reactor projects have been and continue to be developed in the UK, the USA , Japan and France, among others. A project in South Africa, which was based on AVR Jülich technology, was paused indefinitely due to technical difficulties and a lack of funding in 2010. A high-temperature experimental reactor, the HTR-10, which is also based on the pebble bed design , has been in operation in the People's Republic of China since 2003. Two further high-temperature reactors of the HTR-PM type there reached criticality as demonstration plants in autumn 2021. A similar project in the USA was discontinued before a prototype reactor was even built, but research on the high-temperature reactor concept is ongoing there. A general trend towards moderately high operating temperatures of 700-850°C can be observed in current developments. To date, there is no high-temperature reactor for commercial power generation in operation. 2.) Molten Salt Reactor – (MSR) Fuel in nuclear reactors is usually used in solid form as so-called fuel rods. In molten salt reactors, however, the fuel is molten salt that is pumped through the reactor. Molten Salt Reactor © BASE How does the molten salt reactor work? The fuel is a mix of molten salts (fluorides and chlorides). The concentration of the fissile fuel can be adjusted very accurately via the selection of the salts and their mixing ratio. This allows the production of the exact concentration required to maintain a stable chain reaction. The temperatures in the molten salt are approx. 600-700°C. Controlled nuclear reactions that generate heat take place inside the reactor. This heat can be used to heat water vapour and power a turbine for electricity generation. What are the advantages and disadvantages of molten salt reactors? The safety concept of molten salt reactors is based on basic physico-chemical properties and requires less active safety technology than conventional light water reactors, for example. A central feature of the safety concept is to drain the molten salt into designated containers in the event of malfunctions, thus preventing any further chain reaction. In addition, molten salt reactors can integrate what is known as chemical treatment. The fission products and the composition of the fission products , the fuel and the salt mixture used can be optimised during operation in an additional system in the primary circuit (fuel processing system). In contrast to light water reactors, there is no increased pressure in the primary circuit of a molten salt reactor, which means that some accident scenarios can be ruled out. A major disadvantage of the molten salt reactor is the increased corrosion inside the pipe systems. The hot fuel-salt mix corrodes the metals in the reactor, thus limiting their service life. This problem is also the subject of current research and an important reason why, to date, molten salt reactors only exist as research or pilot plants. Some concepts for molten salt reactors advertise the fact that they can also recycle radioactive waste . The idea is that so-called transuranium elements, which are produced in the reactor during nuclear fission , as well as individual long-lived fission products can be specifically converted, i.e. transmuted. This has not yet been developed to the point where it is ready for use. According to the current state of research , however, it would not be possible to convert all of the radioactive waste . New fission products would also be generated. There would, thus, be no advantage in terms of the final storage strategy pursued in Germany. Depending on the specific design of the molten salt reactor concept, radioactive residues would be produced that differ from those of previous light water reactors. The entire disposal chain would have to be adapted, from the development of suitable conditioning processes and new containers to the requirements for interim and final storage of the radioactive residues. Development status of molten salt reactors Molten salt reactors were last operated in the USA in the 1950s and 1960s in the form of two experimental reactors. Research into the further development of this technology is currently underway in several countries. This research is at very different stages and includes concept studies as well as theoretical and experimental preliminary work. The development of an experimental reactor in China (TMSR-LF1) is the most advanced such concept. The commissioning of this reactor, which has been under construction since 2018, was approved by the Chinese authorities in summer 2022. 3.) Supercritical-water-cooled Reactor – (SCWR) The supercritical-water-cooled reactor is similar in structure to a boiling water reactor, but the pressure and temperature are such that the water does not boil; instead it reaches a supercritical state. The water circulates in a simple cooling circuit and is fed directly into the turbine. Supercritical-water-cooled Reactor © BASE How do supercritical-water-cooled reactors work? The supercritical-water-cooled reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses supercritical water as a working medium. The water is always in a supercritical state, i.e. it has a temperature of over 374°C and a pressure of at least 221 bar. No phase transitions take place above this point, known as the ‘critical point’ of water, which means that the water will no longer boil or condense. The structure of the reactor corresponds to that of a boiling water reactor . The water in the reactor core is heated in a simple cooling circuit, and then fed directly into the turbine. Unlike in a boiling water reactor , the water does not vaporise in supercritical state. The coolant has a higher density and can, thus, absorb the heat more efficiently and transport it away from the core. The core temperature is higher than that of boiling and pressurised water reactors, and the pressure is significantly higher than that of pressurised water reactors (usually a maximum of 160 bar). What are the advantages and disadvantages of a reactor cooled with supercritical water? The design of the reactor is simple and the efficiency is high (up to 45 % ). The special neutron spectrum of the supercritical light water reactor has fast neutrons as well as thermal neutrons. These cause long-lived radionuclides to be transmuted into shorter-lived ones, meaning that the spent nuclear fuel will radiate for less time. One disadvantage is that, similar to the boiling water reactor , the turbine gets radioactively contaminated through direct contact with the cooling water in the primary circuit. The pressure in the circuit ( approx. 250 bar) is very high, which is why the reactor pressure vessel and all other components of the primary circuit have to be thicker and more stable than in conventional light water reactors. Due to the high pressure, damage to the primary circuit also poses an increased risk . Development status of reactors cooled with supercritical water The operation of coal-fired power plants with supercritical water was first trialled in the 1950s and is now standard in new construction projects. Research into the transfer of the concept to nuclear technology has been intensified since the 1990s. However, materials used in modern coal-fired power plants do not have sufficient corrosion resistance for use in the nuclear sector. Further relevant research and development into cladding and structural materials and safety functions is needed. At present, the most advanced designs come from China, the EU , Japan, Canada, Korea, Russia and the US. On the whole, however, development is at an early stage. There are currently no plans for a prototype system. 4.) Gas-cooled Fast Reactor – (GFR) Fast neutrons are used to split the nuclear fuel in gas-cooled fast reactors. These neutrons have a higher kinetic energy than the thermal neutrons used in light water reactors. Similar to high-temperature reactors, helium is used as a coolant. This facilitates particularly high outlet temperatures and increased efficiency compared to conventional light water reactors. Gas-cooled Fast Reactor © BASE How does a gas-cooled fast reactor work? The design of the reactor is similar to that of a classic pressurised water reactor (light water reactor). But instead of water, helium (other gases are also conceivable) is used as a coolant. Uranium, thorium, plutonium or compounds thereof are used as fuel. Unlike high-temperature reactors, which work with moderated thermal neutrons like conventional light water reactors, the fuel in fast reactors is split with fast neutrons. This means that the use of a moderator is not necessary. The high operating temperature of around 850°C yields high efficiencies or can be utilised as process heat for industrial processes. What are the advantages and disadvantages of gas-cooled fast reactors? The envisaged design of the reactor is relatively simple, and there is no need for a moderator at all. The use of unmoderated neutrons leads to transmutation, resulting in less long-lived nuclear waste. Moreover, helium as a coolant can be heated to very high temperatures and does not become radioactive itself. This is the drawback of fast gas-cooled reactors, as helium is not very thermally conductive, which results in increased requirements for cooling the reactor core during operation and immediately after shutdown. Due to the high temperatures, only particularly heat-resistant materials can be used. An additional stress arises from the high neutron flux. The unmoderated fast neutrons are more difficult to shield and can penetrate further into materials than moderated neutrons. This impairs the service life of these materials. Development status of gas-cooled fast reactors Work on the fast gas-cooled reactor concept has been ongoing in the US and Germany since the 1960s, and later also in the UK and Japan. Since the 2000s, research has primarily been driven by France. So far, however, no helium-cooled fast reactor has been built and operated. Extensive research and development are still required, particularly to find suitable fuels and cladding and structural materials for the high-temperature design . In addition, many questions regarding the necessary safety systems and the safety and reliability of operation in general remain unanswered. Generally speaking, development is still at the applied research stage, with no existing prototype designs. Commercial utilisation for power generation or industrial applications is not foreseeable. 5.) Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor – (SFR) In sodium-cooled fast reactors, the nuclear fuel is split using fast neutrons. The reactor core is located in a cooling pool (so-called pool design), which is filled with liquid sodium. A secondary sodium circuit absorbs the heat from the primary sodium pool and conducts it out of the reactor vessel for use in power generation. Sodium-cooled Fast Reactor © BASE How does the sodium-cooled fast reactor work? The reactor core containing the fuel is located in a pool-type container filled with liquid sodium. Sodium is used for its high thermal capacity and good conductivity. Sodium does not boil during operation, so there is no elevated pressure in the reactor vessel. A heat exchanger inside the reactor vessel transfers the heat from the main circuit sodium to a secondary circuit, which also contains liquid sodium. From this secondary circuit, the heat is transferred to a water-bearing tertiary circuit that drives a turbine to generate electricity. In contrast to many other reactor concepts, fast reactors use unmoderated fast neutrons. They can produce additional fissile material from non-fissile isotopes such as uranium -238 or thorium-232 during breeding reactions. Following reprocessing , the fissile material produced in this way can be used as nuclear fuel . Another promise is the reduction of long-lived nuclear waste through transmutation, provided the reactor and fuel production are designed accordingly. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sodium-cooled fast reactors? Thanks to its excellent heat capacity, sodium can completely absorb the decay heat of the fuel elements even without circulation. If, for example, the cooling system should fail due to a power failure, a core meltdown would be passively prevented. In the event of a leak, less coolant will escape as the primary and secondary circuits operate without pressure. This should result in advantages in terms of safety. However, specific accident risks such as sodium leaks and fires must be considered. In the event of a coolant leak, it is necessary to prevent the highly reactive sodium from coming into contact with water and oxygen. This requires additional safety barriers . The system is complex and comparatively expensive, not least because it requires three cooling circuits. Earlier decades saw the possibility of incubating additional fuel in reactors (breeder reaction) as an advantage in some cases. However, due to the quantity of uranium deposits worldwide, there were no major economic advantages to such an application. In addition, depending on the configuration, weapons-grade plutonium is incubated in the reactor. This increases the risk of proliferation of nuclear weapons-grade material. With regard to the transmutation of long-lived waste materials, it must be noted that no such application has yet been developed to operational maturity. According to the current state of research , it would not be possible to transmute all of the radioactive waste . In addition, new fission products would be produced. This would therefore not be an advantage for the final storage strategy pursued in Germany, for example. Development status of sodium-cooled fast reactors The sodium-cooled fast reactor was one of the first reactor concepts in the early days of civil nuclear energy utilisation. Sodium-cooled breeder reactors were and are in operation in several countries. One such experimental facility, the KNK -II, was operated at the German research centre in Karlsruhe from 1977 to 1991. The Kalkar nuclear power plant, which was based on the same technology, was never put into operation due to safety concerns. Three fast sodium-cooled reactors are currently in commercial operation in Russia and China, and others are under construction in both countries and in India. Research and development of reactor concepts for this technology line is ongoing in a large number of countries around the world. The "Generation IV International Forum" has given top priority to this development project. The plan is to press ahead with the development of an advanced fast sodium-cooled reactor with the option of transmuting particularly long-lived waste materials, and to move on to a trial phase in the 2020s. China, EURATOM , France, Japan, Korea, Russia and the USA are contributing to the research and development work. 6.) Lead-cooled Fast Reactor – (LFR) The lead-cooled fast reactor is based on nuclear fission using fast neutrons. Lead or a lead-bismuth alloy is used as the coolant. The primary circuit is designed to allow the liquid metal to circulate by natural convection. This means that there is no need for circulation pumps on the primary side. Electricity is generated by a turbine powered in the secondary circuit. Lead-cooled Fast Reactor © BASE How does the lead-cooled fast reactor work? The reactor has a pool design , which means that the reactor core is located in a pool-shaped container. The pool is filled with the coolant, which is either liquid lead or a lead-bismuth alloy. The metallic coolant does not boil during operation, meaning that normal pressure prevails in the reactor vessel. The heating and cooling processes in the various zones of the reactor vessel allow the coolant to circulate naturally without the need for pumps. A heat exchanger transfers the heat to a secondary circuit where a turbine is run to generate electricity. Depending on the design , the fast neutrons used in the reactor can incubate additional fuel (breeding reaction) or potentially cause a reduction in long-lived waste materials through transmutation. What are the advantages and disadvantages of lead-cooled fast reactors? Like other fast reactors, the lead-cooled fast reactor can be used to incubate additional fuel or to convert long-lived waste material into shorter-lived or stable material by means of transmutation. The reactor core can be designed in such a way that the amount of heat generated per volume is relatively low. The lead alloy can dissipate all of the heat via an automatically adjusted circulation system; no primary circuit pumps are needed. The primary circuit also operates completely without pressure. In addition, lead has very good shielding properties against the ionising radiation emitted by the fuel. One disadvantage of the system is that the lead-bismuth alloy must always be kept at temperatures above its melting point (min. 123 °C ). If not, it will solidify and the entire reactor will become unusable. The coolant must also be filtered at great expense. Lead and bismuth have very high densities, so the system requires stronger structures due to the enormous weight. Bismuth is also very rare and expensive. Development status of lead-cooled fast reactors A research project on lead-cooled fast reactors was already underway in the USA in the 1940s, but was discontinued in 1950. In the Soviet Union, reactors of this type were developed to power submarines, and were used until 1996. The 1990s/2000s witnessed a renewed interest in exploring the concept. Research and development projects are underway in the USA, China, Russia, South Korea and the EU, among others. Problems that still remain unresolved include the minimisation of corrosion and erosion risks due to the liquid metal circulating in the primary circuit and the filtration of the coolant. How does the high-temperature reactor work? High-temperature reactor concepts use helium gas as a coolant instead of water. This allows the reactor to operate at lower pressure, making it more controllable at extremely high temperatures compared to conventional light water reactors. Uranium oxide or carbide is predominantly used as fuel. The fuel comes in small pellets that are encased in a protective shell. The pellets, in turn, are embedded in spheres or prismatic blocks of graphite, which serves as a moderator. These spheres or blocks represent the fuel elements. Coolant flows around them and absorbs the heat generated during the nuclear reaction. This heat can be used, for example, to heat water and drive a steam turbine. Advantages and disadvantages of high-temperature reactors? In addition to an increased efficiency and the generation of process heat at high temperatures, high-temperature reactors offer further advantages over conventional reactors. The design of the fuel elements and the helium cooling offer improved safety features. This means that additional safety systems can be used, some of which are not available in water-cooled reactors. Due to its design, the high-temperature reactor has a relatively low output in relation to the total volume of the reactor core. A core meltdown can, therefore, be ruled out. If the plant is suitably designed, natural uranium , thorium, plutonium or mixed oxides can also be used as fuel in addition to enriched uranium . However, the technology also has major disadvantages. The high temperature and the helium coolant pose a challenge in terms of selecting suitable materials. Gas-cooled reactors also often exhibit problems such as uneven cooling, high abrasion and dust formation as well as an increased risk of fire in the event of water or air ingress. This can lead to the release of radioactive substances . Due to the high content of radioactive graphite, the final disposal of spent fuel elements is estimated to be significantly more cost-intensive compared to conventional fuel elements. Development status of high-temperature reactors Gas-cooled high-temperature reactors have been the subject of research since the 1960s. Prototype plants based on this concept (the pebble bed reactors in Jülich and Hamm-Uentrop) were also developed in Germany. At the end of the 1980s, both plants were shut down due to various technical problems, and the technology was gradually abandoned in Germany. Other high-temperature reactor projects have been and continue to be developed in the UK, the USA , Japan and France, among others. A project in South Africa, which was based on AVR Jülich technology, was paused indefinitely due to technical difficulties and a lack of funding in 2010. A high-temperature experimental reactor, the HTR-10, which is also based on the pebble bed design , has been in operation in the People's Republic of China since 2003. Two further high-temperature reactors of the HTR-PM type there reached criticality as demonstration plants in autumn 2021. A similar project in the USA was discontinued before a prototype reactor was even built, but research on the high-temperature reactor concept is ongoing there. A general trend towards moderately high operating temperatures of 700-850°C can be observed in current developments. To date, there is no high-temperature reactor for commercial power generation in operation. How does the molten salt reactor work? The fuel is a mix of molten salts (fluorides and chlorides). The concentration of the fissile fuel can be adjusted very accurately via the selection of the salts and their mixing ratio. This allows the production of the exact concentration required to maintain a stable chain reaction. The temperatures in the molten salt are approx. 600-700°C. Controlled nuclear reactions that generate heat take place inside the reactor. This heat can be used to heat water vapour and power a turbine for electricity generation. What are the advantages and disadvantages of molten salt reactors? The safety concept of molten salt reactors is based on basic physico-chemical properties and requires less active safety technology than conventional light water reactors, for example. A central feature of the safety concept is to drain the molten salt into designated containers in the event of malfunctions, thus preventing any further chain reaction. In addition, molten salt reactors can integrate what is known as chemical treatment. The fission products and the composition of the fission products , the fuel and the salt mixture used can be optimised during operation in an additional system in the primary circuit (fuel processing system). In contrast to light water reactors, there is no increased pressure in the primary circuit of a molten salt reactor, which means that some accident scenarios can be ruled out. A major disadvantage of the molten salt reactor is the increased corrosion inside the pipe systems. The hot fuel-salt mix corrodes the metals in the reactor, thus limiting their service life. This problem is also the subject of current research and an important reason why, to date, molten salt reactors only exist as research or pilot plants. Some concepts for molten salt reactors advertise the fact that they can also recycle radioactive waste . The idea is that so-called transuranium elements, which are produced in the reactor during nuclear fission , as well as individual long-lived fission products can be specifically converted, i.e. transmuted. This has not yet been developed to the point where it is ready for use. According to the current state of research , however, it would not be possible to convert all of the radioactive waste . New fission products would also be generated. There would, thus, be no advantage in terms of the final storage strategy pursued in Germany. Depending on the specific design of the molten salt reactor concept, radioactive residues would be produced that differ from those of previous light water reactors. The entire disposal chain would have to be adapted, from the development of suitable conditioning processes and new containers to the requirements for interim and final storage of the radioactive residues. Development status of molten salt reactors Molten salt reactors were last operated in the USA in the 1950s and 1960s in the form of two experimental reactors. Research into the further development of this technology is currently underway in several countries. This research is at very different stages and includes concept studies as well as theoretical and experimental preliminary work. The development of an experimental reactor in China (TMSR-LF1) is the most advanced such concept. The commissioning of this reactor, which has been under construction since 2018, was approved by the Chinese authorities in summer 2022. How do supercritical-water-cooled reactors work? The supercritical-water-cooled reactor is a nuclear reactor that uses supercritical water as a working medium. The water is always in a supercritical state, i.e. it has a temperature of over 374°C and a pressure of at least 221 bar. No phase transitions take place above this point, known as the ‘critical point’ of water, which means that the water will no longer boil or condense. The structure of the reactor corresponds to that of a boiling water reactor . The water in the reactor core is heated in a simple cooling circuit, and then fed directly into the turbine. Unlike in a boiling water reactor , the water does not vaporise in supercritical state. The coolant has a higher density and can, thus, absorb the heat more efficiently and transport it away from the core. The core temperature is higher than that of boiling and pressurised water reactors, and the pressure is significantly higher than that of pressurised water reactors (usually a maximum of 160 bar). What are the advantages and disadvantages of a reactor cooled with supercritical water? The design of the reactor is simple and the efficiency is high (up to 45 % ). The special neutron spectrum of the supercritical light water reactor has fast neutrons as well as thermal neutrons. These cause long-lived radionuclides to be transmuted into shorter-lived ones, meaning that the spent nuclear fuel will radiate for less time. One disadvantage is that, similar to the boiling water reactor , the turbine gets radioactively contaminated through direct contact with the cooling water in the primary circuit. The pressure in the circuit ( approx. 250 bar) is very high, which is why the reactor pressure vessel and all other components of the primary circuit have to be thicker and more stable than in conventional light water reactors. Due to the high pressure, damage to the primary circuit also poses an increased risk . Development status of reactors cooled with supercritical water The operation of coal-fired power plants with supercritical water was first trialled in the 1950s and is now standard in new construction projects. Research into the transfer of the concept to nuclear technology has been intensified since the 1990s. However, materials used in modern coal-fired power plants do not have sufficient corrosion resistance for use in the nuclear sector. Further relevant research and development into cladding and structural materials and safety functions is needed. At present, the most advanced designs come from China, the EU , Japan, Canada, Korea, Russia and the US. On the whole, however, development is at an early stage. There are currently no plans for a prototype system. How does a gas-cooled fast reactor work? The design of the reactor is similar to that of a classic pressurised water reactor (light water reactor). But instead of water, helium (other gases are also conceivable) is used as a coolant. Uranium, thorium, plutonium or compounds thereof are used as fuel. Unlike high-temperature reactors, which work with moderated thermal neutrons like conventional light water reactors, the fuel in fast reactors is split with fast neutrons. This means that the use of a moderator is not necessary. The high operating temperature of around 850°C yields high efficiencies or can be utilised as process heat for industrial processes. What are the advantages and disadvantages of gas-cooled fast reactors? The envisaged design of the reactor is relatively simple, and there is no need for a moderator at all. The use of unmoderated neutrons leads to transmutation, resulting in less long-lived nuclear waste. Moreover, helium as a coolant can be heated to very high temperatures and does not become radioactive itself. This is the drawback of fast gas-cooled reactors, as helium is not very thermally conductive, which results in increased requirements for cooling the reactor core during operation and immediately after shutdown. Due to the high temperatures, only particularly heat-resistant materials can be used. An additional stress arises from the high neutron flux. The unmoderated fast neutrons are more difficult to shield and can penetrate further into materials than moderated neutrons. This impairs the service life of these materials. Development status of gas-cooled fast reactors Work on the fast gas-cooled reactor concept has been ongoing in the US and Germany since the 1960s, and later also in the UK and Japan. Since the 2000s, research has primarily been driven by France. So far, however, no helium-cooled fast reactor has been built and operated. Extensive research and development are still required, particularly to find suitable fuels and cladding and structural materials for the high-temperature design . In addition, many questions regarding the necessary safety systems and the safety and reliability of operation in general remain unanswered. Generally speaking, development is still at the applied research stage, with no existing prototype designs. Commercial utilisation for power generation or industrial applications is not foreseeable. How does the sodium-cooled fast reactor work? The reactor core containing the fuel is located in a pool-type container filled with liquid sodium. Sodium is used for its high thermal capacity and good conductivity. Sodium does not boil during operation, so there is no elevated pressure in the reactor vessel. A heat exchanger inside the reactor vessel transfers the heat from the main circuit sodium to a secondary circuit, which also contains liquid sodium. From this secondary circuit, the heat is transferred to a water-bearing tertiary circuit that drives a turbine to generate electricity. In contrast to many other reactor concepts, fast reactors use unmoderated fast neutrons. They can produce additional fissile material from non-fissile isotopes such as uranium -238 or thorium-232 during breeding reactions. Following reprocessing , the fissile material produced in this way can be used as nuclear fuel . Another promise is the reduction of long-lived nuclear waste through transmutation, provided the reactor and fuel production are designed accordingly. What are the advantages and disadvantages of sodium-cooled fast reactors? Thanks to its excellent heat capacity, sodium can completely absorb the decay heat of the fuel elements even without circulation. If, for example, the cooling system should fail due to a power failure, a core meltdown would be passively prevented. In the event of a leak, less coolant will escape as the primary and secondary circuits operate without pressure. This should result in advantages in terms of safety. However, specific accident risks such as sodium leaks and fires must be considered. In the event of a coolant leak, it is necessary to prevent the highly reactive sodium from coming into contact with water and oxygen. This requires additional safety barriers . The system is complex and comparatively expensive, not least because it requires three cooling circuits. Earlier decades saw the possibility of incubating additional fuel in reactors (breeder reaction) as an advantage in some cases. However, due to the quantity of uranium deposits worldwide, there were no major economic advantages to such an application. In addition, depending on the configuration, weapons-grade plutonium is incubated in the reactor. This increases the risk of proliferation of nuclear weapons-grade material. With regard to the transmutation of long-lived waste materials, it must be noted that no such application has yet been developed to operational maturity. According to the current state of research , it would not be possible to transmute all of the radioactive waste . In addition, new fission products would be produced. This would therefore not be an advantage for the final storage strategy pursued in Germany, for example. Development status of sodium-cooled fast reactors The sodium-cooled fast reactor was one of the first reactor concepts in the early days of civil nuclear energy utilisation. Sodium-cooled breeder reactors were and are in operation in several countries. One such experimental facility, the KNK -II, was operated at the German research centre in Karlsruhe from 1977 to 1991. The Kalkar nuclear power plant, which was based on the same technology, was never put into operation due to safety concerns. Three fast sodium-cooled reactors are currently in commercial operation in Russia and China, and others are under construction in both countries and in India. Research and development of reactor concepts for this technology line is ongoing in a large number of countries around the world. The "Generation IV International Forum" has given top priority to this development project. The plan is to press ahead with the development of an advanced fast sodium-cooled reactor with the option of transmuting particularly long-lived waste materials, and to move on to a trial phase in the 2020s. China, EURATOM , France, Japan, Korea, Russia and the USA are contributing to the research and development work. How does the lead-cooled fast reactor work? The reactor has a pool design , which means that the reactor core is located in a pool-shaped container. The pool is filled with the coolant, which is either liquid lead or a lead-bismuth alloy. The metallic coolant does not boil during operation, meaning that normal pressure prevails in the reactor vessel. The heating and cooling processes in the various zones of the reactor vessel allow the coolant to circulate naturally without the need for pumps. A heat exchanger transfers the heat to a secondary circuit where a turbine is run to generate electricity. Depending on the design , the fast neutrons used in the reactor can incubate additional fuel (breeding reaction) or potentially cause a reduction in long-lived waste materials through transmutation. What are the advantages and disadvantages of lead-cooled fast reactors? Like other fast reactors, the lead-cooled fast reactor can be used to incubate additional fuel or to convert long-lived waste material into shorter-lived or stable material by means of transmutation. The reactor core can be designed in such a way that the amount of heat generated per volume is relatively low. The lead alloy can dissipate all of the heat via an automatically adjusted circulation system; no primary circuit pumps are needed. The primary circuit also operates completely without pressure. In addition, lead has very good shielding properties against the ionising radiation emitted by the fuel. One disadvantage of the system is that the lead-bismuth alloy must always be kept at temperatures above its melting point (min. 123 °C ). If not, it will solidify and the entire reactor will become unusable. The coolant must also be filtered at great expense. Lead and bismuth have very high densities, so the system requires stronger structures due to the enormous weight. Bismuth is also very rare and expensive. Development status of lead-cooled fast reactors A research project on lead-cooled fast reactors was already underway in the USA in the 1940s, but was discontinued in 1950. In the Soviet Union, reactors of this type were developed to power submarines, and were used until 1996. The 1990s/2000s witnessed a renewed interest in exploring the concept. Research and development projects are underway in the USA, China, Russia, South Korea and the EU, among others. Problems that still remain unresolved include the minimisation of corrosion and erosion risks due to the liquid metal circulating in the primary circuit and the filtration of the coolant. Further information on transmutation Partitioning and transmutation
Das Projekt "Self Sustained Compact Mobile System Turning Waste Sludge Inert" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Muegge-electronic GmbH durchgeführt. With the increasing population densities within the EU and the predicted rise in the volume of sewage sludge to 10 Bn tonnes p.a., there is an urgent need to provide the 40,000 waste water treatment plants with a cost effective and energy efficient method of converting their biologically active sludge output into an inert form, on-site prior to it's transportation and in a safe form for landfill. European emission standards for disposal and incineration have to be met. There is a need for reduction of hazardous, biologically active sludge being land filled and potentially contaminating ground water supplies for drinking water. Sludge is transported from sewage plants to the incineration with content of only 30 percent dry substance (DS). 1.15 M tonnes of DS mean actually 3.83 M tonnes p.a. of sludge being transported. This equates to 191,500 truck loads of 20 tonnes each. The main innovation of the project is the combination of sludge drying and gasification in one unit having both steps heated up by microwave. The project will develop a basic understanding of the dynamic processes involved in heat transfer and antenna interaction of microwave and the aerodynamic control of flows within the dryer cavity. One specific innovative step required is the design of a novel antenna, using arial technique configuration to achieve sufficient microwave energy density and homogeneity across the conveyed pellet stream to achieve 95 percent dryness at stage 1 because the gasification process at stage 2 needs dry input of more then 92 percent. This project delivers the development of a compact and therefore mobile combined sludge drying and gasification system that uses microwave energy to improve the thermal efficiency of both drying and gasification processes and produces waste solid in an inert form. These systems can process up to 1.7 tons per hour of sludge (approx. 0.6 tons/h dry solids content) and achieves 95 percent drying prior to gasification to produce 'clean' combustible gas supply during gasification stage. An electrical conversion efficiency of 25 percent will enable to produce sufficient power for the microwave generator. The recovery of 90 percent of thermal energy from the gases and degassed product and its use during the drying process will enable the system to be energy self-sufficient. Objectives are to substitute at least 20 percent of the current 1.15M tonnes p.a. European incinerated sludge disposal market within 5 years, generating ?23 M p.a. and securing 153 jobs as well as capturing at least 5 percent of the current 6.8 M tonnes p.a. of the landfill sludge disposal market, generating ?34 M p.a., creating 227 jobs. Through this reduction of 230,000 tonnes p.a. of sludge being transported by road and incinerated a lot of transport and up to 19 Mio litres of diesel fuel for transportation can be saved. ...
Das Projekt "Coal gasification - waste heat utilization - phase 2 stage 2 -" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Krupp Koppers durchgeführt. Objective: The aim of the project is the energetic optimisation of the PRENLO-process for the gasification of solid fuels under pressure by development and testing of a new waste heat boiler system. The engineering and construction of a PRENFLO-plant (Pressurized Entrained flow Coal Gasification) with a capacity of 48 t/d Coal throughput at design pressure (Contract LG/018/83/DE) and the execution of the subsequent test programme (Phase 2 of the project; LG/270/85/DE and the present contract, LG/354/87/DE) served to justify the technical and economic risks of commercializing the process on a large industrial scale and demonstrate the long-term availability of the system and of newly developed components. General Information: The PRENFLO process is based on the atmospheric Koppers-Totzek process. This new technology is characterized by high gasifier unit capacity, high thermal efficiency, independence of coal quality, high gas quality and low environmental impact. To demonstrate the PRENFLO process and to test as well as optimize the components of the system a 48 t/d PRENFLO plant was erected on the site of the technology centre of the Saarbergwerke AG in Forstenhausen (Saarland, Germany), project LG/018/83/DE. PRENFLO gasification operates according to the entrained flow principle. Coal dust with a grain size of smaller than100 m is conveyed under pressure, using nitrogen, to a reactor with a water-cooled refractory lining. The gasification agents oxygen and steam are added at the gasifier burners. The gasification of the coal dust, i.e. reactor with a water-cooled refractory lining. The gasification agents oxygen and steam are added at the gasifier burners. The gasification of the coal dust, i.e. the partial oxidation of the carbon to carbon monoxide, takes place in a flame reaction at temperatures of more than 2000 deg. C and a pressure of 24 to 30 bar, the coal substance being converted into CO, H2 and small amounts of CO2. The sulphur content in the coal is converted into H2S and to a limited extent COS, the chlorine into HCl. Coal ash flows as liquid slag out of the gasifier into a water bath and is discharged from there as granulated inert high-temperature slag. Some of the coal ash is removed from the reactor as fly ash together with the raw gas. The raw gas leaves the reactor from the top and is normally quenched with cole and cleaned recycle gas in order to solidify discharged liquid ash particles. The raw gas is further cooled in the waste heat boiler. High pressure steam generation is coupled with the cooling system of the reactor. The steam produced in both systems is passed to super heaters. The downstream raw gas cleaning system comprises a dry dedusting unit, Venturi scrubber, a high-pressure separator and a scrubbing water circulation system with a pressure filter for separation of filter cake and a stripper for waste water purification. In the present programme (LG/255/89/DE) the raw gas leaving the PRENFLO reactor is not
Das Projekt "Innovative glazings for high solar gains and daylighting" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Fraunhofer-Institut für Solare Energiesysteme durchgeführt. General Information/Objectives: The objectives of this project are to develop advanced window systems with a widely variable solar transmittance, a low u-value (smaller than 1.1 W/m2K) and in special cases improved day lighting performance. In order to meet the objectives, different new technologies will be pursued and integrated into one system. Thus the main task is to develop: (1) highly transparent coatings with low thermal emittance in order to achieve glazings with uvalues smaller than 1.1 W/m2K (2) a switching system with a very wide dynamic range for the transmittance modulation (between 0.7 and 0.05) (3) broad-band antireflection layers with a gain in solar transmittance of at least 5 per cent per pane (4) daylight directing and distributing components with a maximum efficiency higher than 40 per cent. Technical Approach New materials and production technologies are available on a small scale in research laboratories. During the project these new materials and technologies have to be combined to build up new window systems. The scaling up will be done in close cooperation with the consulting industrial companies. At the end of the project a decision has to be made as to which technologies will be available for large scale industrial production. Complete systems will be constructed, characterised and tested. In close cooperation with industry and architects, the appearance and technical acceptance will be tested and the cost of the systems analysed. Expected Achievements and Exploitation In the course of the project, results in the different fields will be presented at conferences and discussed with the scientific world. Positive feedback from outside will be included in the project. At the end of the project the results will be presented in a special workshop during Eurosun II, which will be held in Ljubljana in September 1998. For this workshop, a short summary of the final report will be available. The workshop will be organized by the industrial partners so that they can demonstrate their interest in this field. Depending on the success of the project, demonstration projects are planned within the THERMIE Programme afterwards. Prime Contractor: Fraunhofer Gesellschaft zur Fördeung der Angewandten Forschung e.V., Institut für Solare Energiesysteme; Freiburg im Breisgau; Germany..
Das Projekt "Biogas-fired Combined Hybrid Heat and Power Plant (Bio-HyPP)" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt e.V. (DLR) durchgeführt. To reach the goals of improving the efficiency of CHP systems while simultaneously widening the biomass feedstock base as well as increasing operational flexibility, the project aims to develop a full scale technology demonstrator of a hybrid power plant using biogas as main fuel in lab environment. A combined hybrid heat and power plant combines a micro gas turbine (MGT) and a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC). The focus of the technology demonstration plant is to prove the functional capability of the plant concept, followed by detailed characterization and optimization of the integration of both subsystems. The main objective is to move the technology beyond the state of the art to TRL 4. Electrical efficiencies of more than 60% and total thermal efficiencies of more than 90% are intended to reach at base load conditions. An operational flexibility ranging from 25% to 100% electric power should be achieved. The emission levels should not exceed 10 ppm NOx and 20 ppm CO (at 15% vol. residual oxygen). The system should allow the use of biogas with methane contents varying from 40-75%, thus covering the biogas qualities from the fermentation of the entire biomass feedstock range. To achieve the objectives the subsystems MGT and SOFC including their subcomponents have to be adjusted and optimized by a multidisciplinary design approach using numerical and experimental measures to ensure a proper balance of plant. In addition an integrated control system has to be developed and implemented to achieve a reliable operation of the coupled subsystems. A detailed analysis of different European markets, economic and technical constraints in terms of biogas production potentials will clarify the regional suitable sizes and attractive performance conditions of the power plant system. To identify cost reduction potentials a thermo-economic analysis will be performed. Here, an internal rate of return (IRR) of the system of higher than 15% should be achieved over a 20 years.
Das Projekt "Heat Roadmap Europe - A low-carbon heating and cooling strategy for Europe (HRE4)" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Fraunhofer-Institut für System- und Innovationsforschung durchgeführt. Heat Roadmap Europe 4 (HRE4) will create more certainty in relation to the long-term changes that are necessary to decarbonise the European heating and cooling sector. Through this HRE4 will enable new policies and prepare the ground for new investments. The combination of local demand and resource mapping and integrated energy system analysis shows both the local nature of heating and cooling, but also the impact that heating and cooling has on our national energy systems. This allows us to develop and assess scenarios that are inherently local, and on a national and European scale. HRE studies the heating and cooling sector in Europe, and quantifies the effects of increased energy efficiency on both the demand and supply side in terms of energy consumption, environmental impact, and costs. By looking at the 14 largest consumers of heating and cooling in Europe, we will develop country-specific Roadmaps, but will also be able to discuss the future of 90% of European heating and cooling demands. So far, Heat Roadmap Europe studies have concluded that energy efficiency in the heating sector, which primarily includes heat savings in buildings, district heating in urban areas, and heat pumps and solar thermal in rural areas, will result in a cheaper, more local, and far more renewable heating and cooling sector in the future. Heat Roadmap Europe 4 is mapping and modeling the heating and energy systems of the 14 largest users of heat in the EU, to develop new policies at local, national, and EU level to ensure the uptake of efficient, sustainable and affordable heating and cooling solutions. Fraunhofer ISI will contribute with applying its bottom-up model FORECAST (www.forecast-model.eu) for a detailed profiling of today's heating and cooling demand in Europe as well as for simulating its future evolution. A particular focus will lie on the potentials and costs for heat savings in both buildings and industry.
Das Projekt "Development of an internal Reforming Alcohol High Temperature PEM Fuel Cell Stack" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Institut für Mikrotechnik Mainz e.V. & Co. KG durchgeführt. The main objective of the proposal is the development of an internal reforming alcohol high temperature PEM fuel cell. Accomplishment of the project objective will be made through: Design and synthesis of robust polymer electrolyte membranes for HT-PEMFCs, which will be functional within the temperature range of 190-22OoC. Development of alcohol (methanol or ethanol) reforming catalysts for the production of CO-free hydrogen in the temperature range of HT PEMFCs, i.e. at 190-220oC. Integration of reforming catalyst and high temperature MEA in a compact Internal Reforming Alcohol High Temperature PEMFC (IRAFC). Integration may be achieved via different configurations as related to the Position of the reforming catalyst. The proposed compact system does away with conventional fuel processors and allows for efficient heat management. since the 'waste' heat produced by the fuel cell is in-situ utilized to drive the endothermic reforming reaction. The targeted power density of the system is 0.15 W/cm2 at a ceil voltage ofü.7 V. Thus, the concepts of a catalytic reformer and of a fuel cell are combined in a single, simplified direct alcohol (e.g. methanol) High Temperature PEM fuel cell reactor. The heart of the system is the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) comprising a high-temperature proton-conducting electrolyte sandwiched between the anodic (reforming catalyst + PUC) und cathodic Pt/C gas diffusion electrodes. According to the configuration und the operating conditions described above, the IRAFC is expected to be auto thermal, highly efficient and with zero CO emissions. In addition, the direct consumption ofH2 by the MEA (fuel cell) and the electrochemical promotion effect is expected to enhance the kinetics of reforming reactions, thus facilitating the efficient operation of the reforming catalyst at temperatures below 220 C.
Das Projekt "The supercritical CO2 Heat Removal System (sCO2-HeRo)" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von Universität Duisburg-Essen, Institut für Energie und Umweltverfahrenstechnik, Lehrstuhl für Strömungsmaschinen durchgeführt. Raising nuclear reactor safety to a higher level - The supercritical CO2 heat removal system - 'sCO2-HeRo. The 'supercritical CO2 heat removal system', sCO2-HeRo, safely, reliably and efficiently removes residual heat from nuclear fuel without the requirement of external power sources. This system therefore can be considered as an excellent backup cooling system for the reactor core or the spent fuel storage in the case of a station blackout and loss of ultimate heat sink. sCO2-HeRo is a very innovative reactor safety concept as it improves the safety of both currently operating and future BWRs and PWRs through a self-propellant, self-sustaining and self-launching, highly compact cooling system powered by an integrated Brayton-cycle using supercritical carbon dioxide. Since this system is powered by the decay heat itself, it provides new ways to deal with accidents that are beyond design. The sCO2-HeRo provides breakthrough options with scientific and practical maturity, which will be proven by means of numerical tools, like advanced CFD, and small-scale experiments to determine the performance of the components like a compact heat exchanger and a turbo-machine set. A demonstration unit of the sCO2-HeRo system will be installed in a unique glass model in order to demonstrate the maturity of the system. Finally, the potential of this system to deal with a range of different accident scenarios and beyond-design accidents will be shown with the help of the German nuclear code ATHLET.
Das Projekt "Entwicklung und Erprobung eines Betriebsverfahrens mit Verwendung von Abwaerme (Grundzyklus) und der Moeglichkeit, den Kraftstoffverbrauch von Dieselmotoren zu verringern" wird vom Umweltbundesamt gefördert und von MAN durchgeführt. General Information: The proportion of exergy in the coolant heat of internal combustion engines is too small (approx. 4 per cent of the primary energy) because the coolant temperature is quite low (about 80 degrees c). By contrast, the exergy in the exhaust gases amounts, (when they are cooled from 560 degrees c to 180 degrees c), to some 12 per cent of the primary energy. The aim of this study is to convert exhaust heat of internal combustion engines into mechanical energy and to transfer it to the crankshaft in order to improve the effective engine efficiency. For diesel engines this may improve the overall efficiency from 40 per cent to about 50 per cent. In this study a bottoming cycle unit for a turbocharged 6-cylinder diesel engine installed in a long-haul truck (207 kw at 2000 rpm) was developed, constructed and tested. To this end, different working fluids were compared. A test rig was used to measure, test and refine the system for use. The choice of the working fluid fell ultimately on steam. (the organic rankine cycle technology requires, compared to a steam process, a higher capital investment due to much greater heat-exchanger surfaces, the expensive working fluid and the safety precautions required if the working medium has an inflammable or toxic behaviour). A radial turbine was chosen, while the other components of the rankine engine were selected according to conventional practice. A gear box was used to connect the bottoming engine with the diesel engine (lubrication problems of the gear box have been solved). At the design point, the speed of the turbine was 100,000 rpm and its useful power approx. 19.4 kw. The steam is heated with waste heat of 590 degrees c, is expanded and cooled down to 110 degrees c. The resulting high speed of the turbine shaft and the high temperatures did not permit the use of contact seals. The amount of sealing air demands a larger compressed air tank for the vehicles brake system. Furthermore, the leakage of the sealing steam had to be supplemented by treated boiler feed water. The bottoming cycle components (water treatment plant and larger compressed air tank) could not be accommodated on the truck without sacrificing some of the payload capacity. Therefore, this version of exhaust gas utilisation (given the present price of diesel fuel and the relatively small distances travelled per year in Europe) is uneconomical.
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