Other language confidence: 0.9705512643125184
technologyComment of ethylene oxide production (RER): Ethylene is directly oxidized with air or oxygen in the presence of a catalyst to ethylene oxide (EO). About 40% of all European EO production is converted into glycols, globally the figure is about 70%. Usually, EO and MEG are produced together at integrated plants. Industrial production started in 1937 with a union Carbide process based on ethylene and air. In 1958 oxygen rather than air was instroduced by Shell Development Company, and today most processes are based on oxygen. Total European production was 3.4 million tons per year in 1997, while the US produced 5.2 million tons per year. Further production capacity of at least 1.2 million tons is reported from Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Japan and South Korea giving a total of at least 9.8 million tons of ethylene oxide production worldwide. Ethylene oxide is a hydrocarbon compound made from ethylene and oxygen. Major manufacturers include Hoechst Celanese, Shell Chemical, and Union Carbide, among many others. EO is produced by passing a mixture of ethylene and oxygen over a solid silver-containing catalyst. Selectivity is improved by the addition of chlorine compounds such as chloroethane. Reaction conditions are temperatures of about 200 - 300 °C and a pressure of 10 – 30 bar. The main by-products are carbon dioxide and water, formed when ethylene is fully oxidised or some of the EO is further oxidised. Ethylene glycols are formed when the reactor gases are absorbed into chilled water. C2H4 + 1/2 O2 C2H4O (1) C2H4 O + H2O HO-C2H4-OH (2) C2H4 + 3 O2 2 CO2 + 2 H2O (3) (1) production of ethylene oxide (2) production of MEG from EO and water (3) production of carbon dioxide and water from oxidation of ethylene The carbon dioxide is removed from the scrubber by absorption with hot aqueous potassium carbonate, the resulting solution is steam stripped to remove the carbon dioxide, which is vented to air. The potassium carbonate is regenerated. The carbon dioxide can be reused for inerting, or is sold, or is vented to atmosphere. References: IPPC Chemicals, 2002. European Commission, Directorate General, Joint Research Center, “Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Large Volume Organic Chemical Industry”, February 2002. Wells, 1999. G. Margaret Wells, “Handbook of Petrochemicals and Processes”, 2nd edition, Ashgate, 1999
technologyComment of ammonia production, steam reforming, liquid (RER w/o RU): This datasets corresponds to the technology used in European ammonia plants with natural gas based fuel and feedstock. The most efficient way of ammonia synthesis gas production is natural gas reforming with steam and air. The ammonia production process consists of several steps: desulphurization, primary production, secondary reforming, shift conversion, CO2 removal, methanation, synthesis gas compression and ammonia synthesis. technologyComment of ammonia production, steam reforming, liquid (RU): This datasets corresponds to the technology used in Russian ammonia plants with natural gas based fuel and feedstock. The most efficient way of ammonia synthesis gas production is natural gas reforming with steam and air. The ammonia production process consists of several steps: desulphurization, primary production, secondary reforming, shift conversion, CO2 removal, methanation, synthesis gas compression and ammonia synthesis. technologyComment of cocamide diethanolamine production (RER): Cocamide diethanolamine can be produced from different reaction of diethanolamine with methyl cocoate, coconut oil, whole coconut acids, stripped coconut fatty acids. Cocamide diethanolamine is modelled here as the 1:1 reaction of coconut oil and diethanolamine. The reaction occurs at a maximum temperature of 170 degrees Celcius with the aid of an alkaline catalyst. The catalyst in not consider significant in terms of emissions for the reaction and it is therefore not included in this dataset and it is assumed to be taken into consideration in the input of chemical factory. The production process can also be a 1:2 fatty acids reaction. This results in a lower quality product with output of free diethanolamine and ethylene glycol (Elbers 2013). Coconut oil composition varies, here it assumed an average composition CH3(CH2)12CONH2. This inventory representing production of a particular chemical compound is at least partially based on a generic model on the production of chemicals. The data generated by this model have been improved by compound-specific data when available. The model on production of chemicals is using specific industry or literature data wherever possible and more generic data on chemical production processes to fill compound-specific data gaps when necessary. The basic principles of the model have been published in literature (Hischier 2005, Establishing Life Cycle Inventories of Chemicals Based on Differing Data Availability). The model has been updated and extended with newly available data from the chemical industry. In the model, unreacted fractions are treated in a waste treatment process, and emissions reported are after a waste treatment process that is included in the scope of this dataset. For volatile reactants, a small level of evaporation is assumed. Solvents and catalysts are mostly recycled in closed-loop systems within the scope of the dataset and reported flows are for losses from this system. The main source of information for the values for heat, electricity, water (process and cooling), nitrogen, chemical factory is industry data from Gendorf. The values are a 5-year average of data (2011 - 2015) published by the Gendorf factory (Gendorf, 2016, Umwelterklärung, www.gendorf.de), (Gendorf, 2015, Umwelterklärung, www.gendorf.de), (Gendorf, 2014, Umwelterklärung, www.gendorf.de). The Gendorf factory is based in Germany, it produces a wide range of chemical substances. The factory produced 1657400 tonnes of chemical substances in the year 2015 (Gendorf, 2016, Umwelterklärung, www.gendorf.de) and 740000 tonnes of intermediate products. Reference(s): Hischier, R. (2005) Establishing Life Cycle Inventories of Chemicals Based on Differing Data Availability (9 pp). The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, Volume 10, Issue 1, pp 59–67. 10.1065/lca2004.10.181.7 Gendorf (2016) Umwelterklärung 2015, Werk Gendorf Industriepark, www.gendorf.de Elbers, E. 2013. Some Chemicals Present in Industrial and Consumer Products, Food and Drinking-water. In IARC MONOGRAPHS ON THE EVALUATION OF CARCINOGENIC RISKS TO HUMANS, Vol.101, pp.141-148 WHO Press, Geneva. For more information on the model please refer to the dedicate ecoinvent report, access it in the Report section of ecoQuery (http://www.ecoinvent.org/login-databases.html)
Coverage of production capacity in Europe: 85%
technologyComment of chlor-alkali electrolysis, diaphragm cell (RER): In the diaphragm process, all reactions take place in only one cell. A diaphragm is used to separate the feed brine (anolyte) and the chlorine formed at the anode from the sodium hydroxide containing solution (catholyte) and the hydrogen formed at the cathode. Without the diaphragm being present during electrolysis, chlorine and hydrogen would form an explosive mixture and sodium hydroxide and chlorine would react to form sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). Diaphragms used to be made from asbestos but up-todate technology allows for asbestos-free polymer-based diaphragms. Purified brine is fed to the anode compartment and percolates through the diaphragm into the cathode compartment. The percolation rate is controlled by a difference in liquid level between both compartments. At the anodes (metal oxide coated titanium), chlorine gas is formed which is collected and directed to further processing. Cathodes, where water decomposition takes place, are made of activated carbon steel. Catholyte leaving the cell, also called cell liquor, is a mixture of 10-12 wt.-% sodium hydroxide and 15-17 wt.-% sodium chloride in water. This solution is usually evaporated to 50 wt.-% NaOH. In this process, simultaneously most of the salt is removed by precipitation to a final residual of 1 wt.-%. The resulting salt is typically recirculated to brine preparation. The advantage of diaphragm cells is that the quality requirements for the brine and the electrical energy consumption are low. Disadvantageous are the high amount of thermal energy necessary for sodium hydroxide concentration and the comparably low quality of the produced sodium hydroxide and chlorine. References: Euro Chlor (2013) An Eco-profile and Environmental Product Declaration of the European Chlor-Alkali Industry, Chlorine (The chlor-alkali process). technologyComment of chlor-alkali electrolysis, membrane cell (RER): In the membrane cell process, the anode and cathode compartments are separated by a perfluoropolymer cation-exchange membrane that selectively transmits sodium ions but suppresses the migration of hydroxyl ions (OH-) from the catholyte into the anolyte. Saturated brine flows through the anode compartment, where chlorine gas is produced at the anode. The electric field in the electrolysis cell causes hydrated sodium ions to migrate through the membrane into the cathode compartment. The cathode compartment is fed with diluted sodium hydroxide solution. Water is electrolysed at the cathode releasing gaseous hydrogen and hydroxyl ions, which combine with the sodium ions and thus increase the concentration of sodium hydroxide in the catholyte. Typically, the outlet concentration of sodium hydroxide is around 32 wt.-%. A part of the product stream is diluted with demineralised water to about 30 wt.-% and used as catholyte inlet. In some units, a more diluted 23 wt.-% NaOH solution is produced. In these cases, the inlet concentration is adjusted to 20-21 wt.-%. Usually the NaOH solution is evaporated to the marketable concentration of 50 wt.-% using steam. Depleted brine leaving the anode compartment is saturated with chlorine and is therefore sent to a dechlorination unit to recover the dissolved chlorine before it is resaturated with salt for recirculation. The advantages of the membrane cell technique are the very high purity of the sodium hydroxide solution produced and the comparably low energy demand. Disadvantages comprise the high requirements on brine purity, the need for sodium hydroxide evaporation to increase concentration, and the comparably high oxygen content in the produced chlorine. In general, multiple cell elements are combined into a single unit, called electrolyser, of whom the design can be either monopolar or bipolar. In a monopolar electrolyser, the anodes and cathodes of the cells are connected electrically in parallel, whereas in the bipolar design, they are connected in series. Therefore, monopolar electrolysers require high current and low voltage, whereas bipolar electrolysers require low current and high voltage. Since bipolar systems allow higher current densities inside the cells, investment and operating costs are usually lower than for monopolar systems. References: Euro Chlor (2013) An Eco-profile and Environmental Product Declaration of the European Chlor-Alkali Industry, Chlorine (The chlor-alkali process). technologyComment of chlor-alkali electrolysis, mercury cell (RER): The mercury cell process comprises an electrolysis cell and a decomposer. Purified and saturated brine (25-28 wt.-% NaCl in water) is fed to the electrolysis cell on top of a film of mercury (Hg) flowing down the inclined base of the cell. The base of the cell is connected to the negative pole of a direct current supply forming the cathode of the cell. Anodes consisting of titanium coated with oxides of ruthenium and titanium are placed in the brine without touching the mercury film. At the anodes, chlorine gas is formed which is collected and directed to further processing. Due to a high overpotential of hydrogen at the mercury electrode, no gaseous hydrogen is formed; instead, sodium is produced and dissolved in the mercury as an amalgam (mercury alloy). The liquid amalgam is removed from the electrolytic cell and fed to a decomposer, where it reacts with demineralised water in the presence of a graphite-based catalyst to form sodium hydroxide solution and hydrogen. The sodium-free mercury is recirculated back into the cell. Cooling of hydrogen is essential to remove any water and mercury. The sodium hydroxide solution is very pure, almost free from chloride contamination and has usually a concentration of 50 %. Further treatment comprises cooling and removal of catalyst and mercury traces by centrifuges or filters. Advantages of the mercury cell process are the high quality of chlorine and the high concentration and purity of sodium hydroxide solution produced. The consumption of electric energy for electrolysis is, however, higher than for the other techniques and a high purity of the feed brine is required. Inherently, the use of mercury gives rise to environmental releases of mercury. References: Euro Chlor (2013) An Eco-profile and Environmental Product Declaration of the European Chlor-Alkali Industry, Chlorine (The chlor-alkali process). technologyComment of potassium hydroxide production (RER): Potassium hydroxide is manufactured by the electrolysis of potassium chloride brine in electrolytical cells. Hydrogen and chlorine are withdrawn from the cell. The rest of the reaction mixture contains KOH, water, and unreacted potassium chloride. This reaction mixture is then concentrated in an evaporator. Most of the potassium chloride crystallizes by evaporation, and is recycled. After evaporation, the potassium hydroxide is precipitated. Potassium hydroxide, chlorine and hydrogen are obtained from potassium chloride brine according to the following reaction: 2 KCl + 2 H2O -> 2 KOH + Cl2 + H2 Reference: Jungbluth, N., Chudacoff, M., Dauriat, A., Dinkel, F., Doka, G., Faist Emmenegger, M., Gnansounou, E., Kljun, N., Schleiss, K., Spielmann, M., Stettler, C., Sutter, J. 2007: Life Cycle Inventories of Bioenergy. ecoinvent report No. 17, Swiss Centre for Life Cycle Inventories, Dübendorf, CH. technologyComment of sodium chloride electrolysis (RER): Sodium chloride electrolysis
technologyComment of steel production, chromium steel 18/8, hot rolled (RER, RoW): technology mix
technologyComment of cobalt production (GLO): Cobalt, as a co-product of nickel and copper production, is obtained using a wide range of technologies. The initial life cycle stage covers the mining of the ore through underground or open cast methods. The ore is further processed in beneficiation to produce a concentrate and/or raffinate solution. Metal selection and further concentration is initiated in primary extraction, which may involve calcining, smelting, high pressure leaching, and other processes. The final product is obtained through further refining, which may involve processes such as re-leaching, selective solvent / solution extraction, selective precipitation, electrowinning, and other treatments. Transport is reported separately and consists of only the internal movements of materials / intermediates, and not the movement of final product. Due to its intrinsic value, cobalt has a high recycling rate. However, much of this recycling takes place downstream through the recycling of alloy scrap into new alloy, or goes into the cobalt chemical sector as an intermediate requiring additional refinement. Secondary production, ie production from the recycling of cobalt-containing wastes, is considered in this study in so far as it occurs as part of the participating companies’ production. This was shown to be of very limited significance (less than 1% of cobalt inputs). The secondary materials used for producing cobalt are modelled as entering the system free of environmental burden. technologyComment of nickel mine operation and benefication to nickel concentrate, 16% Ni (CA-QC): Mining is done underground, followed by beneficiation. Overburden (2.67 kg/kg concentrate) and tailings (6.99 kg/kg concentrate) are disposed on the mining site.
technologyComment of sulfite pulp production, bleached, (RER): Mix of modern Ca-bisulphite and Mg-sulphite bleaching technology. technologyComment of sulfite pulp production, bleached, (RoW): Mix of modern Ca-bisulphite and Mg-sulphite bleaching technology.
technologyComment of particleboard production, uncoated, average glue mix (RER): Particleboard is manufactured by mixing wood particles or flakes together with a resin and forming the mix into a sheet. The raw material to be used for the particles is fed into a disc chipper with between four and sixteen radially arranged blades. The particles are first dried, after which any oversized or undersized particles are screened out. Resin, in liquid form, is then sprayed through nozzles onto the particles. There are several types of resins that are commonly used. Amino-formaldehyde based resins are the best performing when considering cost and ease of use. Urea melamine resins are used to offer water resistance with increased melamine offering enhanced resistance. Phenol formaldehyde is typically used where the panel is used in external applications due to the increased water resistance offered by phenolic resins and also the colour of the resin resulting in a darker panel. Melamine urea phenolic formaldehyde resins exist as a compromise. To enhance the panel properties even further the use of resorcinol resins typically mixed with phenolic resins are used, but this is usually used with plywood for marine applications and a rare occasion in panel production.
Objective: The aim of the proposed Integrated Project is to solve the persisting generic problems with planar Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) in a concerted action of the European fuel cell industry and research institutions. Main topics addressed include decreased ageing, cost effective materials, low cost components and manufacturing processes, highest electricity generation efficiency in pressurised operation and waste heat utilisation. In close co-operation between industry and research institutions the following steps are accomplished: *improved understanding of ageing in planar SOFC stacks considering all modes of operation, including pressurised, long-term testing over 10.000 hrs., thermal cycling up to 100 cycles, and the influences of fuel composition; these results will flow into *adaptation of materials and protective coatings in order to reduce ageing to well below 0,5Prozent/1000 hrs., introduction of requirements from pressurised operation to materials and cell development; the modified materials then are used in *manufacturing of improved components under commercial conditions and subsequent characterisation in long- term and cycling tests. Two proofs-of-concept including laboratory equipment tests will address * the pressurised operation of stacks coupled with gas turbines (including pressurised stack development in the 5 and 50 kW range) and *the utilisation of the high-value waste heat for industrial processes , namely sorption cooling. The project addresses the topics of Life Cycle Analysis as an essential tool for assessing the environmental impact and recycling of the materials used, industrial standardisation as a means of lowering costs, and training and dissemination as a tool of human resource management and gender equality. The structure of the project is similar to the U.S. American SECA programme targeted at decisive cost reductions in SOFC systems.
technologyComment of gold mine operation and refining (SE): OPEN PIT MINING: The ore is mined in four steps: drilling, blasting, loading and hauling. In the case of a surface mine, a pattern of holes is drilled in the pit and filled with explosives. The explosives are detonated in order to break up the ground so large shovels or front-end loaders can load it into haul trucks. ORE AND WASTE HAULAGE: The haul trucks transport the ore to various areas for processing. The grade and type of ore determine the processing method used. Higher-grade ores are taken to a mill. Lower grade ores are taken to leach pads. Some ores may be stockpiled for later processing. HEAP LEACHING: The ore is crushed or placed directly on lined leach pads where a dilute cyanide solution is applied to the surface of the heap. The solution percolates down through the ore, where it leaches the gold and flows to a central collection location. The solution is recovered in this closed system. The pregnant leach solution is fed to electrowinning cells and undergoes the same steps as described below from Electro-winning. ORE PROCESSING: Milling: The ore is fed into a series of grinding mills where steel balls grind the ore to a fine slurry or powder. Oxidization and leaching: Some types of ore require further processing before gold is recovered. In this case, the slurry is pressure-oxidized in an autoclave before going to the leaching tanks or a dry powder is fed through a roaster in which it is oxidized using heat before being sent to the leaching tanks as a slurry. The slurry is thickened and runs through a series of leaching tanks. The gold in the slurry adheres to carbon in the tanks. Stripping: The carbon is then moved into a stripping vessel where the gold is removed from the carbon by pumping a hot caustic solution through the carbon. The carbon is later recycled. Electro-winning: The gold-bearing solution is pumped through electro-winning cells or through a zinc precipitation circuit where the gold is recovered from the solution. Smelting: The gold is then melted in a furnace at about 1’064°C and poured into moulds, creating doré bars. Doré bars are unrefined gold bullion bars containing between 60% and 95% gold. References: Newmont (2004) How gold is mined. Newmont. Retrieved from http://www.newmont.com/en/gold/howmined/index.asp technologyComment of primary zinc production from concentrate (CA-QC): Hydrometallurgical process Sulphide concentrates are roasted first in fluidized bed roasters to produce zinc oxide (calcine) and sulphur dioxide. Roasting is an exothermic process and no additional fuel is used to sustain the reaction, the heat generated is recovered to produce steam. Calcine is then sent to the leaching step. Roaster gases are treated in hot electrostatics precipitators to remove dust. The remaining dust and volatile metals such as mercury and selenium are removed in the wet section of the acid plant through a cooling tour, a mist precipitator and a mercury tower (Boliden mercury removal processs). The sulphur dioxide is then converted to sulphuric acid in a conventional recovery system (converted and absorbing tower). Leaching of the calcine is carried out in a number of successive stages using a gradually increasing strength of hot sulphuric acid. The initial stages dissolve the major part of the zinc oxide and the other stages dissolve the zinc ferrite (ZnO.Fe2O3) and convert iron into Jarosite (sodium Jarosite). Zinc sulfate (ZnSO4) entering the electrolysis stage produce electrolyte (H2SO4) that is returned to leaching plant. Other metals are also dissolved during the process and are removed after leaching. Iron is the major impurity, which is precipitated in the form of Jarosite. Overall waste: The production of metals is related to the generation of several by-products, residues and wastes. Relatively large quantities of iron based solids, depending on the iron content, are generated by the leaching process (6.14E-1 kg Jarosite/kg zinc). Cement is added to the Jarosite to produce Jarofix (an inert waste). Solid residues also arise as the result of the liquid effluents treatment. The main waste stream is gypsum (CaSO4) and metal hydroxides that are produced at the wastewater neutralization plant. Mercury and selenium residues arise from the weak acid bleed treatment from the acid plant. Selenium can be recovered from these residues depending on the market demand for this metal. Overall emissions: The emissions to air can either be stack emissions or fugitive emissions. Stack emissions are normally monitored continuously (SO2) or periodically (other emissions) and reported. The main emissions to air from zinc production are sulphur dioxide (SO2) and particulate matters including metals. Main emissions to water are metals and their compounds. The monitored metals are zinc, cadmium, lead, mercury, selenium, copper and arsenic. technologyComment of primary zinc production from concentrate (RoW): The technological representativeness of this dataset is considered to be high as smelting methods for zinc are consistent in all regions. Refined zinc produced pyro-metallurgically represents less than 5% of global zinc production and less than 2% of this dataset. Electrometallurgical Smelting The main unit processes for electrometallurgical zinc smelting are roasting, leaching, purification, electrolysis, and melting. In both electrometallurgical and pyro-metallurgical zinc production routes, the first step is to remove the sulfur from the concentrate. Roasting or sintering achieves this. The concentrate is heated in a furnace with operating temperature above 900 °C (exothermic, autogenous process) to convert the zinc sulfide to calcine (zinc oxide). Simultaneously, sulfur reacts with oxygen to produce sulfur dioxide, which is subsequently converted to sulfuric acid in acid plants, usually located with zinc-smelting facilities. During the leaching process, the calcine is dissolved in dilute sulfuric acid solution (re-circulated back from the electrolysis cells) to produce aqueous zinc sulfate solution. The iron impurities dissolve as well and are precipitated out as jarosite or goethite in the presence of calcine and possibly ammonia. Jarosite and goethite are usually disposed of in tailing ponds. Adding zinc dust to the zinc sulfate solution facilitates purification. The purification of leachate leads to precipitation of cadmium, copper, and cobalt as metals. In electrolysis, the purified solution is electrolyzed between lead alloy anodes and aluminum cathodes. The high-purity zinc deposited on aluminum cathodes is stripped off, dried, melted, and cast into SHG zinc ingots (99.99 % zinc). Pyro-metallurgical Smelting The pyro-metallurgical smelting process is based on the reduction of zinc and lead oxides into metal with carbon in an imperial smelting furnace. The sinter, along with pre-heated coke, is charged from the top of the furnace and injected from below with pre-heated air. This ensures that temperature in the center of the furnace remains in the range of 1000-1500 °C. The coke is converted to carbon monoxide, and zinc and lead oxides are reduced to metallic zinc and lead. The liquid lead bullion is collected at the bottom of the furnace along with other metal impurities (copper, silver, and gold). Zinc in vapor form is collected from the top of the furnace along with other gases. Zinc vapor is then condensed into liquid zinc. The lead and cadmium impurities in zinc bullion are removed through a distillation process. The imperial smelting process is an energy-intensive process and produces zinc of lower purity than the electrometallurgical process.
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